1. Instrument Ground Training Module 8
Randy Schoephoerster

2. Agenda Weather Causes of Weather Wind Atmosphere Jetstream Clouds
Thunderstorms
Wind Shear
Icing
Microbursts

3. CAUTION…………………..
The sole purpose of this class is to expedite your passing the FAA knowledge test. With that said, all extra material not directly tested on the FAA knowledge test is omitted, even though much more information and knowledge is necessary to fly safely. Consult the FAR/AIM (CFR) and other FAA Handbooks for further information along with a Flight Instruction course.
Instrument Knowledge Test is good for 24 calendar months.
FAA-G D
www. sportys.com/faatest
AC 00-6A Weather Advisory Circular

4. CFR 61.65 (d) Instrument Practical Test Requirements
(d) Aeronautical experience for the instrument-airplane rating. A person who applies for an instrument-airplane rating must have logged:
(1) Fifty hours of cross country flight time as pilot in command, of which 10 hours must have been in an airplane; and
(2) Forty hours of actual or simulated instrument time in the areas of operation listed in paragraph (c) of this section, of which 15 hours must have been received from an authorized instructor who holds an instrument-airplane rating, and the instrument time includes:
(i) Three hours of instrument flight training from an authorized instructor in an airplane that is appropriate to the instrument-airplane rating within 2 calendar months before the date of the practical test; and
(ii) Instrument flight training on cross country flight procedures, including one cross country flight in an airplane with an authorized instructor, that is performed under instrument flight rules, when a flight plan has been filed with an air traffic control facility, and that involves—
(A) A flight of 250 nautical miles along airways or by directed routing from an air traffic control facility;
(B) An instrument approach at each airport; and
(C) Three different kinds of approaches with the use of navigation systems.

5. Causes of Weather
Every physical process of weather is accompanied by, or is the result of, heat exchanges.
Unequal heating of the Earth's surface causes differences in pressure and, thus, altimeter settings.
On weather maps, the lines drawn to connect points of equal pressure show pressure contours called isobars.

6. Uneven Heating of the Earth’s Surface

7. Winds Three of the forces at work on winds are discussed below.
The pressure gradient force causes wind to flow from an area of high pressure to one of low pressure
This flow is thus perpendicular to the isobars.
Coriolis force deflects winds to the right in the Northern Hemisphere. Coriolis force is a result of the Earth's rotation.
The Coriolis force is at a right angle to wind direction and directly proportional to wind speed. Its effect is more forceful at greater altitudes (above approximately 2,000 ft. AGL) because surface winds are slowed by friction.
It deflects winds so strongly that they flow parallel to isobars.
Friction with the Earth's surface weakens the wind.
Since these winds are slower, they are less affected by Coriolis force. The pressure gradient becomes stronger than Coriolis force, and the wind flows across, rather than parallel to, the isobars.
An air mass is an extensive body of air having uniform moisture and temperature properties.

8. Isobars

9. Coriolis vs Pressure Gradient

10. 7.1 Causes of Weather
Every physical process of weather is accompanied by, or is the result of, heat exchanges
Unequal heating of the Earth’s surface causes differences in pressure and altimeter settings
The Coriolis force deflects winds to the right in the Northern Hemisphere. It is caused by the Earth’s rotation
The deflections caused by Coriolis force are less at the surface due to the slower wind speed
The wind speed is slower at the surface due to friction between wind and the Earth’s surface

11. Winds

12. Winds

13. Winds

14. Jet Stream
The jet stream is a narrow, disjointed, wandering "river" of maximum winds.
It moves with pressure ridges and troughs in the upper atmosphere near the tropopause.
It blows from a generally westerly direction and, by definition, has a speed of 50kts or more.
The jet stream is normally weaker and farther north in the summer.
The jet stream is normally stronger and farther south in the winter.

15. Jet Stream

16. Fronts
A front is the zone of transition between two air masses of different temperature, humidity, and wind.
There is always a change in wind when you fly across a front.
The threat of low-level wind shear occurs just before the warm front passes the airport.
With a cold front, the most critical period for wind shear occurs just as or just after the cold front passes the airport.
Frontal waves and cyclones (and areas of low pressure) usually form in slow-moving cold fronts or in stationary fronts.
Squall lines usually develop ahead of a cold front.

17. Fronts

18. Fronts/Wind Shear

19. 7.4 Thunderstorms
The most severe thunderstorm conditions are generally associated with squall line thunderstorms
Heavy hail
Destructive winds
Tornadoes, etc
A squall line is a non-frontal narrow band of thunderstorms usually ahead of a cold front

20. Squall Lines

21. Instrument Ground Training Module 8
Randy Schoephoerster

22. Agenda Weather Causes of Weather Wind Atmosphere Jetstream Clouds
Thunderstorms
Wind Shear
Icing
Microbursts

23. Atmosphere
The average height of the layer of the Earth's atmosphere called the troposphere is about 37,000 ft. in mid-latitudes. It varies between approximately 25,000 ft. at the poles to 65,000 ft. at the equator.
The boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere is the thin layer called the tropopause.
Temperature and wind vary greatly in the vicinity of the tropopause.
It is associated with an abrupt change in the temperature lapse rate.
The stratosphere is the layer of atmosphere above the tropopause.
It is characterized by low moisture content and absence of clouds.
It has relatively small changes in temperature with an increase in altitude.

24. Small changes in temp with altitude
37,000ft
Abrupt chg in Temp Lapse rate

25. Atmosphere

26. Atmosphere

27. Stability
The lapse rate is a measure of how much temperature decreases (or possibly increases) with an increase in altitude. This is the actual temperature change associated with increases in altitude and sometimes is referred to as the ambient lapse rate.
In contrast to the ambient or actual lapse rate is the adiabatic lapse rate. The adiabatic, or "expansional cooling" lapse rate, is the temperature decrease due only to expansion of air as it rises. The adiabatic lapse rate means no heat gain or loss - just a decrease in temperature because of expansion.
The dry adiabatic lapse rate is 3°C per 1,000 ft.
The adiabatic lapse rate varies from about 1.1 °C to 2.8°C based on moisture content of the air.
The average adiabatic lapse rate is 2°C per 1,000 ft.

28. Lapse Rates/Stability
The ambient lapse rate can thus be used by pilots to determine the stability of air masses.
The greater the ambient lapse rate (more than 2°C per 1,000 ft.) and the higher the humidity, the more unstable the air — and the more thunderstorms can be expected.
Moist air is less stable than dry air because it cools adiabatically at a slower rate, which means that moist air must rise higher before its temperature cools to that of the air around it (i.e., cumulus build-up).
Cloud formation after lifting is determined by the stability of the air before lifting.
Turbulence and clouds with vertical development (cumuliform) result when unstable air rises (due to convective currents).
Moist, stable air moving up a mountain slope produces stratiform clouds as it cools.
Unstable air moving up a mountain slope produces clouds with extensive vertical development.

29. Stable vs Unstable Air
When a cold air mass moves over a warm surface, heating from below provides unstable lifting action, giving rise to cumuliform clouds, turbulence, and good visibility.
The growth rate of precipitation is enhanced by upward air currents carrying water droplets upward where condensation increases droplet size.
Stable air characteristics
Stratiform clouds and fog
Smooth air
Continuous (steady) precipitation
Fair-to-poor visibility in haze and smoke
Unstable air characteristics
Cumuliform clouds
Turbulent air
Showery precipitation
Good visibility

30. Stable vs Unstable

31. Stable vs Unstable

32. Stable Air

33. Unstable Air

34. Stability

35. Unstable air and Dry Adiabatic

36. Temperature Inversion
Normally, temperature decreases as altitude increases. A temperature inversion occurs when temperature increases as altitude increases.
Temperature inversions usually result in a stable layer of warm air below the inversion.
A temperature inversion often develops near the ground on clear, cool nights when the wind is light.
It is caused by terrestrial radiation.
Smooth air with restricted visibility (due to fog, haze, or low clouds) is usually found beneath a low-level temperature inversion.

37. Temperature Inversions

38. Temp, Dew Point & Fog
When the temperature-dew point spread is 3°C (5°F) or less and decreasing, you should expect fog and/or low clouds.
Air temperature largely determines how much water vapor can be held by the air.
Dew point is the temperature at which the air will be saturated with moisture, i.e., 100% humidity.
Frost forms when the temperature of the collecting surface (e.g., the airplane) is below the dew point of the surrounding air and the dew point is below freezing (0°C or 32°F).
Water vapor becomes visible as it condenses into clouds, fog, or dew.
Evaporation is the conversion of liquid water to water vapor.
Sublimation is the conversion of ice to water vapor or water vapor to ice.

39. Fog
Radiation fog is most likely to occur when there is a clear sky, little or
no wind, and a small temperature-dew point spread over a land
surface (especially low, flatland areas).
As the ground cools rapidly due to radiation, the air close to the surface cools more quickly than slightly higher air.
This is the most frequent type of surface-based temperature inversion.
As the air reaches its dew point, radiation fog forms.
Advection fog forms as a result of moist air condensing as it moves
over a colder surface (i.e., water or ground).
It requires wind to force the movement.
Advection fog is most likely to occur in coastal areas, when air moves inland from the coast in winter.

40. Fog
Upslope fog results from warm, moist air being cooled as it is forced up sloping terrain.
Precipitation-induced fog results from warm fronts (warmer air over cooler air), i.e., when warm rain or drizzle falls through the cooler air.
Evaporation from the precipitation saturates the cooler air, causing fog.
Fog can also form easily in industrial areas where combustion pollution provides a high concentration of condensation nuclei (tiny particles on which moisture can condense as the air cools).

41. Temperature Inversion

42. Radiation Fog
Clear Sky, little to no wind, low temp to dew point spread, over land

43. Radiation Fog

44. Advection Fog
Requires wind, usually in coastal areas

45. 7.8 Temperature/DewPoint & Fog
What types of fog depend upon wind in order to exist?
Radiation fog and ice fog
Steam fog and ground fog
Advection fog and upslope fog
C. Advection fog and upslope fog

46. Fog

47. Advection Fog

48. Fog

49. Fog

50. Fog & Dew Point

51. Clouds Clouds are divided into four families based on their height:
High clouds (consist of ice crystals and do not pose an icing threat)
Middle clouds
Low clouds
Clouds with extensive vertical development
Lifting action, unstable air, and moisture are the ingredients for the formation of cumulonimbus clouds.
Fair weather cumulus clouds form in convective currents and often indicate turbulence at and below the cloud level.
Nimbus means rain cloud.
Towering cumulus is an early stage of cumulonimbus.
d. The greatest turbulence is in cumulonimbus clouds (thunderstorms).
Standing lenticular altocumulus clouds (ACSL) are almond or lens-shaped and form on the crests of waves created by barriers in the wind flow (e.g., on the leeward side of a mountain).
a. The presence of these clouds indicates very strong turbulence

52. 7.4 Thunderstorms
Greatest Turbulence

53. Standing Lenticular Cloud Almond Shaped
Wind?

54. Clouds

55. Clouds

56. Clouds

57. Clouds/Lightening

58. Thunderstorms Thunderstorms have three phases in their life cycle:
Cumulus - the building stage of a thunderstorm when there are continuous updrafts
Mature - the time of greatest intensity when there are both updrafts and downdrafts (causing severe wind shear and turbulence)
1) The commencing of rain on the Earth's surface indicates the
beginning of the mature stage of a thunderstorm.
Dissipating - characterized predominantly by downdrafts; i.e., the phase of the storm raining itself out
A thunderstorm, by definition, always has lightning, because
lightning causes thunder.
Lightning strikes are most common when operating with an outside air temperature (OAT) of between -5°C and +5°C.

59. Thunderstorms
Thunderstorms are produced by cumulonimbus clouds. They form when there is
Sufficient water vapor
An unstable lapse rate
An initial upward boost (i.e., a lifting action) to start the process.
Thunderstorms produce wind shear turbulence, a hazardous and invisible phenomenon, particularly for airplanes landing and taking off.
If a thunderstorm is penetrated, a pilot should fly straight ahead, set power for recommended turbulence penetration airspeed, and attempt to maintain a level attitude.
The most severe thunderstorm conditions (heavy hail, destructive winds, tornadoes, etc.) are generally associated with squall line thunderstorms.
A squall line is a nonfrontal, narrow band of thunderstorms usually ahead of a cold front.

60. Thunderstorms
A squall (not squall line) is defined as a sudden increase in wind speed of at least 16 kt., the speed rising to 22 kt. or more and lasting at least 1 min.
Embedded thunderstorms are obscured because they occur in very cloudy conditions or thick haze layers.
Airborne weather-avoidance radar detects only precipitation drops. It does not detect minute cloud droplets (i.e., clouds and fog).
Thus, airborne weather-avoidance radar provides no assurance of avoiding instrument weather conditions.

61. 7.4 Thunderstorms Thunderstorms have three phases in their life cycle
Cumulus: The building stage of a thunderstorm when there are continuous updrafts
Mature: The time of greatest intensity when there are both updrafts and downdrafts
The commencing of rain on the Earth’s surface indicates the beginning of the mature stage of a thunderstorm
Dissipating: When there are only downdrafts
The storm is raining itself out

62. 7.4 Thunderstorms

63. 7.4 Thunderstorms
Thunderstorms are produced by cumulonimbus clouds. They form when there is
Sufficient water vapor
An initial upward boost to start the process
And an unstable lapse rate

64. 7.4 Thunderstorms
Thunderstorms produce wind shear turbulence, a hazardous and invisible phenomenon particularly for airplanes landing and taking off
Hazardous wind shear near the ground can also be present during periods of strong temperature inversion

65. 7.4 Thunderstorms
A thunderstorm has lightning because that is what causes thunder
Embedded thunderstorms are obscured (can’t see them) because they occur in very cloudy conditions

66. Thunderstorms

67. Thunderstorms

68. Thunderstorms

69. Thunderstorms

70. Thunderstorms

71. Wind Shear
Wind shear is any change in wind velocity (speed and/or direction).
If the change is abrupt and of more than slight magnitude, it can be an extreme hazard to flight.
Wind shear can occur at any level in the atmosphere and be horizontal and/or vertical; i.e., it occurs wherever adjacent air flows in different directions and/or at different speeds.
Wind shear is an atmospheric condition that may be associated with a low-level temperature inversion, a jet stream, or a frontal zone.

72. Wind Shear
Light turbulence momentarily causes slight, erratic changes in altitude and/or attitude.
Severe turbulence and wind shear may be found on all sides of a thunderstorm, including directly beneath it and as much as 20 mi. laterally.
Hazardous wind shear is commonly encountered near the ground during periods of strong temperature inversion and near thunderstorms.
Expect wind shear in a temperature inversion whenever wind speed at 2,000 to 4,000 ft. AGL is 25 kt. or more

73. Wind Shear

74. Turbulence & Wind Shear

75. Wind Shear

76. Wind Shear

77. Wind Shear

78. Agenda Weather Causes of Weather Wind Atmosphere Jetstream Clouds
Thunderstorms
Wind Shear
Icing
Microbursts

79. Instrument Ground Training Module 8
Randy Schoephoerster