1. CHAPTER 26 Fluids and Electrolytes
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Fluid Balance
Total body water
60% of adult human body is water
Three main compartments
Intracellular fluid (ICF)
Interstitial fluid (ISF)
Plasma volume (PV)
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Fluid Balance
Intravascular fluid (IVF)
Fluid inside blood vessels
Extravascular fluid (EVF)
Fluid outside blood vessels
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Fluid Balance
Extracellular volume
Plasma
Interstitial fluid (ISF): fluid in space between cells, tissues, and organs
Extravascular volume
ISF (interstitial fluid)
ICF (intercellular fluid)
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Figure 26-1 Distribution of total body water (TBW). ECF, Extracellular fluid; ICF, intracellular fluid; ISF, interstitial fluid; PV, plasma volume .
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Table 26-1 Fluid location: descriptive terms and actual volumes
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Fluid Balance
Plasma proteins exert constant osmotic pressure
Colloid oncotic pressure (COP)
Normally 24 mm Hg
ISF exerts hydrostatic pressure (HP)
Normally 17 mm Hg
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Figure 26-2 Colloid osmotic pressure (oncotic pressure). As shown, the colloids inside the blood vessel are too large to pass through the vessel wall. The resulting oncotic pressure exerted by the colloids draws fluid from the surrounding tissues and other extravascular spaces into the blood vessels and also keeps fluid inside the blood vessel.
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Fluid Balance
Edema
Dehydration and fluid loss
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10. Table 26-2 Types of dehydration
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Table 26-3 Conditions leading to fluid loss or dehydration and associated corresponding symptoms
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12. Fluids and Electrolytes: Crystalloids
Fluids that supply water and sodium
Help to maintain osmotic gradient between extravascular and intravascular compartments
Plasma-volume expanders due to sodium concentrations
Do not contain proteins (colloids)
Contain fluids and electrolytes that are normally found in the body
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Table 26-4 Crystalloids
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14. Fluids and Electrolytes: Crystalloids (cont'd)
Better for treating dehydration rather than expanding plasma volume
Used as maintenance fluids
Compensate for insensible fluid losses
To replace fluids
To manage specific fluid and electrolyte disturbances
Promote urinary flow
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15. Fluids and Electrolytes: Crystalloids (cont'd)
Normal saline (0.9% sodium chloride)
Half normal saline (0.45% sodium chloride)
Hypertonic saline (3% sodium chloride)
Lactated Ringer’s
D5W
Plasma-Lyte
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16. Fluids and Electrolytes: Crystalloids (cont'd)
Indications include:
Acute liver failure
Acute nephrosis
Burns
Shock
Renal dialysis
Many other conditions
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17. Fluids and Electrolytes: Crystalloids (cont'd)
Side/adverse effects
May cause edema, especially peripheral or pulmonary
May dilute plasma proteins, reducing COP
Effects may be short-lived
Many other effects
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18. Fluids and Electrolytes: Colloids
Increase COP
Move fluid from interstitial compartment to plasma compartment (when plasma protein levels are low)
Dextran 40 or 70 (a glucose solution)
Hetastarch (synthetic, derived from cornstarch)
5% or 25% albumin (from human donors)
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19. Fluids and Electrolytes: Colloids (cont'd)
Indications
Treat a wide variety of conditions
Superior to crystalloids in PV expansion, but more expensive
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20. Fluids and Electrolytes: Colloids (cont'd)
Side effects/adverse effects
Usually safe
Disadvantages
May cause altered coagulation, resulting in bleeding
Have no clotting factors or oxygen-carrying capacity
Few others
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21. Fluids and Electrolytes: Blood Products
Oxygen-carrying resuscitation fluids
Only class of fluids that are able to carry oxygen
Increase tissue oxygenation
Increase plasma volume
Most expensive and least available fluid because they require human donors
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Table 26-7 Blood Products
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23. Fluids and Electrolytes: Blood Products (cont'd)
Increase COP and PV
Pull fluid from extravascular space into intravascular space (plasma expanders)
RBC products also carry oxygen
Increase body’s supply of various products (such as clotting factors, hemoglobin)
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24. Fluids and Electrolytes: Blood Products (cont'd)
Indications
Cryoprecipitate and plasma protein factors (PPF)
Management of acute bleeding (>50% slow blood loss or 20% acutely)
Fresh frozen plasma (FFP)
Increase clotting factor levels in patients with demonstrated deficiency (coagulation disorders)
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25. Fluids and Electrolytes: Blood Products (cont'd)
Indications
PRBCs and whole blood
To increase oxygen-carrying capacity in patients with anemia, substantial hemoglobin deficits, and for blood loss >25% of total blood volume
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Table 26-9 Suggested guidelines for blood products: management of bleeding
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27. Fluids and Electrolytes: Blood Products
Side/adverse effects
Incompatibility with recipient’s immune system
Transfusion reaction
Anaphylaxis
Transmission of pathogens to recipient (hepatitis, HIV)
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Electrolytes
Principal ECF electrolytes
Sodium cations (NA+)
Chloride cations (Cl+)
Principal ICF electrolyte
Potassium (K+)
Others
Calcium, magnesium, phosphorus
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29. Electrolytes: Potassium
Most abundant positively charged electrolyte inside cells
95% of body’s potassium is intracellular
Potassium content outside of cells ranges from 3.5 to 5 mEq/L
Potassium levels are critical to normal body function
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30. Electrolytes: Potassium (cont'd)
Potassium obtained from foods
Fruit and fruit juices, fish, vegetables, poultry, meats, dairy products
Excess dietary potassium excreted via kidneys
Impaired kidney function leads to higher serum levels, possibly toxicity
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31. Electrolytes: Potassium (cont'd)
Hyperkalemia: excessive serum potassium serum potassium level >5 mEq/L
Potassium supplements
ACE inhibitors
Renal failure
Excessive loss from cells
Potassium-sparing diuretics
Burns
Trauma
Metabolic acidosis
Hyperaldosteronism
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32. Electrolytes: Potassium (cont'd)
Hypokalemia: deficiency of potassium
serum potassium level <3.5 mEq/L
Excessive potassium loss (rather than poor dietary intake)
Alkalosis
Corticosteroids
Crash diets
Diarrhea
Ketoacidosis
Burns
Loop and thiazide diuretics
Vomiting
Malabsorption
Large amounts of licorice
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33. Box 26-1 Symptoms of Hypokalemia
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34. Electrolytes: Potassium (cont'd)
Potassium is responsible for:
Muscle contraction
Transmission of nerve impulses
Regulation of heartbeat
Maintenance of acid-base balance
Isotonicity
Many other functions in the body
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35. Electrolytes: Potassium (cont'd)
Main indication
Treatment or prevention of potassium depletion when dietary means are inadequate
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36. Electrolytes: Potassium (cont'd)
Side/adverse effects
Oral preparations
Diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, GI bleeding, ulceration
IV administration
Pain at injection site
Phlebitis
Excessive administration
Hyperkalemia
Toxic effects
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37. Electrolytes: Potassium (cont'd)
Hyperkalemia
Muscle weakness, paresthesia, paralysis, cardiac rhythm irregularities (leading to possible ventricular fibrillation and cardiac arrest)
Treatment
IV sodium bicarbonate, calcium salts, dextrose with insulin
Sodium polystyrene sulfonate (Kayexalate) or hemodialysis to remove excess potassium
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Electrolytes: Sodium
Most abundant positively charged electrolyte outside cells
Normal concentration outside cells is 135 to 145 mEq/L
Maintained through dietary intake of sodium chloride
Salt, fish, meats, foods flavored or preserved with salt
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39. Electrolytes: Sodium (cont'd)
Hyponatremia: sodium loss or deficiency; serum levels <135 mEq/L
Symptoms
Lethargy, stomach cramps, hypotension, vomiting, diarrhea, seizures
Causes
Same causes as hypokalemia; also excessive perspiration (during hot weather or physical work), prolonged diarrhea or vomiting, or renal disorders
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40. Electrolytes: Sodium (cont'd)
Hypernatremia: sodium excess; serum levels >145 mEq/L
Symptoms
Water retention (edema), hypertension
Red, flushed skin; dry, sticky mucous membranes, increased thirst, elevated temperature, decreased urine output
Causes
Poor renal excretion stemming from kidney malfunction; inadequate water consumption and dehydration
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41. Electrolytes: Sodium (cont'd)
Sodium is responsible for:
Control of water distribution
Fluid and electrolyte balance
Osmotic pressure of body fluids
Participates in acid-base balance
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42. Electrolytes: Sodium (cont'd)
Main indication
Treatment or prevention of sodium depletion when dietary measures are inadequate
Mild
Treated with oral sodium chloride tablets and/or fluid restriction
Severe
Treated with intravenous normal saline or lactated Ringer’s solution
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43. Electrolytes: Sodium (cont'd)
Sodium: side/adverse effects
Oral administration
Nausea, vomiting, cramps
IV administration
Venous phlebitis
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Nursing Implications
Assess baseline fluid volume and electrolyte status
Assess baseline vital signs
Assess skin, mucous membranes, daily weights, I&O
Before giving potassium, assess ECG
Assess for contraindications to therapy
Assess transfusion history
Establish venous access as needed
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Nursing Implications
Monitor serum electrolyte levels during therapy
Monitor infusion rate, appearance of fluid or solution, infusion site
Observe for infiltration, other complications of IV therapy
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Nursing Implications
Parenteral infusions of potassium must be monitored closely
Rate should not exceed 20 mEq/hour
NEVER give as an IV bolus or undiluted
Oral forms of potassium
Must be diluted in water or fruit juice to minimize GI distress or irritation
Monitor for complaints of nausea, vomiting, GI pain, or GI bleeding
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Nursing Implications
Administer colloids slowly, has potential for fluid volume excess
Monitor for fluid overload and possible heart failure
For blood products, follow administration procedures closely
PRBCs should be used along with 0.9 NS
Monitor closely for signs of transfusion reactions
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48. Signs of Transfusion Reaction
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Nursing Implications
Monitor for therapeutic response
Normal lab values
RBCs, WBC, H&H, electrolyte levels
Improved fluid volume status
Increased tolerance to activities
Monitor for adverse effects
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