1. IB Biology Review
Human Evolution

2. Taxonomy of Humans Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia
Order: Primate
Family: Hominidae
Genus: Homo
Species: Sapiens

3. Chronological Line of Human Evolution
Australopithecus afarensis
Australopithecus africanus
Australopithecus robustus
Homo habilis
Homo erectus
Homo sapiens
Which species are alive?
Only Homo sapiens

4. Biochemical Evidence for Human Evolution from Apes
similar amino acid sequence
similar DNA sequences
remember, chimpanzees share 98% of their genes with humans

5. Anatomical Evidence for Human Evolution from Apes
Both humans and apes have
grasping limbs
opposable thumb
stereoscopic vision
retention of juvenile features (hairless at birth)
similar cranial features
no tail
rotatable shoulder joint

6. What four physical traits define humans as primates?
Have opposable thumb / power grip
Have well developed cerebral cortex / brain
Have limber shoulder joints
Have finger pads / fingerprints / nails (not claws)

7. When did bipedalism come about?
bipedalism evolved in hominids about 5 million years ago
fossil footprints found (at Laetoli) 3.6 million years ago
anatomy of hominids suggests bipedality at 4.4 million years ago

8. How did bipedalism change the life of early hominids?
bipedality provides greater field of view for foraging, detecting predators or traveling
bipedality is an efficient way to move
bipedality frees hands for manipulation

9. Which anatomical features help humans to be bipedal?
arches on feet
support weight and absorb shock
stronger bones in legs / stronger legs
allows for all the weight to be carried by two limbs instead of four
longer legs
bigger stride, more efficient to walk
shorter arms
long arms not needed to help individual move
non-opposable big toe
supports weight distribution in foot

10. Which anatomical features help humans to be bipedal? cont.
foramen magnum
positioned at back and bottom of skull so head can be held upright and still be balanced
knees closer together
enabled smooth stride
wide pelvis
enabled leg bones to fit into to hips to allow bipedalism
lumbar spine curved
absorbs shock from each step
larger muscles on legs
powered two limbs to move body instead of four limbs

11. Position of the Foramen Magnum
Humans
Directly under head
Resting above spine
Humans stand straight up, don’t need spine to be angled into head
Ape
Towards back of head
Spine slanted into head
Apes don’t stand straight up

12. How was Australopithecus afarensis the prototype human?
Had non-opposable big toe
Had a broad pelvis
Had more vertical posture
Skull on top of vertebrae
Long legs indicating bipedality
Curved finger bones meaning it was still living in trees

13. Why did Australopithecus start walking on two legs?
Environment changed
It used to live in dense forest
Drought killed off forest
Became savannah
Had to leave trees
Had to travel far distances to get food and water

14. What is genetic evolution?
Evolution through variation and inheritance of genes
Changes the physical features of the body

15. What is cultural evolution?
Evolution through customs like languages, etc. that are taught/learned

16. Why does cultural evolution depend on increases in brain size?
Organisms can’t use a part of the brain that isn’t there!
The new parts of the brain (neocortex) deal mostly with language and art
Language and art could not be developed before the brain capacity was there

17. IB Exam Question
1. State the order, class, family, genus and species of human beings (1 mark)
Order: Primate
Class: Mammalia
Family: Hominidae
Genus: Homo
Species: sapiens

18. IB Exam Question
2. Discuss the anatomical and biochemical evidence which suggests that humans arose from a species of ape (6 marks)
biochemical evidence:
similar amino acid sequence (e.g. cytochrome, hemoglobin);
similar DNA sequences;
anatomical evidence:
grasping limbs;
opposable thumb;
stereoscopic vision;
retention of juvenile features (hairless at birth) / neoteny;
similar cranial features;
no tail;
rotatable shoulder joint;

19. opposable thumb / power grip; well developed cerebral cortex / brain;
IB Exam Question
3. State four major physical features which define humans as primates. (4 marks)
opposable thumb / power grip;
well developed cerebral cortex / brain;
limber shoulder joints;
finger pads / fingerprints / nails (not claws);

20. IB Exam Question
4. Discuss the origin and consequences of bipedalism in hominids (4 marks)
Origins:
bipedalism evolved in hominids about 5 Mya;
fossil footprints found (at Laetoli) 3.6 Mya;
anatomy of hominids suggests bipedality at 4.4 Mya;
but the fossil record is limited before this date;
bipedality possibly associated with a change in habitat / climate / woodland to savannah;
Consequences:
bipedality provides greater field of view for foraging / detecting predators;
bipedality is an economical form of locomotion
bipedality frees hands for manipulation / carrying things / gesture;

21. stronger bones in legs / stronger legs; longer legs; shorter arms;
IB Exam Question
5. Discuss the anatomical features that enable bipedalism in humans. (3 marks)
arches on feet;
stronger bones in legs / stronger legs;
longer legs;
shorter arms;
non-opposable big toe;
foramen magnum;
knees closer together;
wide pelvis;
lumbar spine curved;
larger muscles on legs;

22. short legs indicating bipedality; curved finger bones / phalanges;
IB Exam Question
6. Outline the trends illustrated by the fossils of Australopithecus afarensis. (3 marks)
non opposable big toe / broad pelvis / more vertical posture / skull on top of vertebrae;
short legs indicating bipedality;
curved finger bones / phalanges;
indicating it was still arboreal;
dentition more like a chimp / larger canines / parallel molars;

23. about five million years ago; it became drier; it became cooler;
IB Exam Question
7. Discuss the possible habitat of Australopithecus and the ecological changes that might have prompted its origin (3 marks)
about five million years ago;
it became drier;
it became cooler;
dense forest was replaced by thin woodland / clearing;
evolution of bipedalism (started leaving trees);
vegetarians;
incompleteness of fossil record causes uncertainties about human evolution;

24. cultural evolution through customs / languages, etc. taught/learned;
IB Exam Question
8. Outline the difference between genetic and cultural evolution (2 marks)
genetic evolution through variation and reproduction / inheritance of genes;
cultural evolution through customs / languages, etc. taught/learned;

25. large brain size correlates with language;
IB Exam Question
9. Discuss how cultural evolution in humans depended on increases in brain size. (3 marks)
large brain size correlates with language;
large brain correlates with improvements in tool-making
improved tools allow more nutritious diets for further brain development (especially hunting tools);
increased brain size leads to written history / cave art / symbolic thought;

26. IB Exam Question
10. Discuss the relative contributions of genetic and cultural evolution in the evolution of humans (6 marks)
In genetic evolution, the unit of genetic inheritance is the gene;
genetic evolution leads to changes in anatomy/physiology;
such as large brain / bipedality / other example;
unit of cultural inheritance is word /gesture /image /symbol /language /tool;
culture is largely acquired / Lamarkian;
genetic inheritance is Darwinian;
cultural evolution linked to technology / cultural revolutions (e.g. agriculture);
both genetic and cultural evolution allow humans to rise above environmental limiting factors such as food / water / shelter / disease;
cultural evolution more rapid than genetic evolution;
genetic evolution still occurring (through changes in allele frequency
due to differential reproductive rates of certain races);
e.g. sickle cell anaemia and resistance to malaria / HIV resistance / other example;
genetic inheritance precedes cultural evolution;
brain size increases through genetic evolution enabling cultural evolution;

27. 2 (±0.5) million years ago in (sub-Saharan) Africa; uncertain because
IB Exam Question
11. Explain why the approximate date and distribution of H. habilis are uncertain. (3 marks)
2 (±0.5) million years ago in (sub-Saharan) Africa;
uncertain because
fossils lacking or not in good form;
soft parts do not fossilize;
interbreeding of species;