1. Dr. Essam M. Hussein Fundamental Organic Chemistry Prepared By
Assistant Professor of Organic Chemistry
Chemistry Department
Faculty of Applied Science -Umm Al-Qura University

2. Carbon Compounds and Chemical bonds:
Organic chemistry is the chemistry of the compounds of carbon.
Carbon compounds include DNA, RNA.
DNA deoxyribonucleic acid.
RNA Ribonucleic acid.
& Proteins & Hydrocarbons and carbohydrates.
Compounds are formed by covalent Bonds.

3. Covalent Bonds:
Covalent Bonds are formed by sharing electrons by atoms.
The first explanations of the nature of chemical bonds were advanced by G. N. Lewis and W. Kossel
The atoms in covalent bond achieve noble gas configurations by sharing electrons.
Covalent bonds form between the atoms form molecules.
Molecules may be represented by electron –dot formulas or by dash formulas where each dash represents a pair of electron shared by two atoms.

4. Examples:
(1) H2 molecule
H 1s↑ + H 1s↑

7. All the previous formulas are called "Lewis structures".
Note: in writing Lewis structures we show only the electrons of the valence shell.

9. Polar Covalent bond and Electronegativity:
The electrons of the covalent bond between non identical atoms are attracted to the atom having high electronegativity (higher atomic number) in this case the covalent bond will be polarized (called polar covalent bond).
Ex: δ δ
Electronegativity:
The ability of atoms to attract covalence bond electrons to
it’s side.

10. Writing Lewis Structures:
When we write Lewis structures (electron-dot formula).
We assemble the molecule or from the constituent atoms showing only the valence electrons (the electrons of the outer most shell).
By having the atoms share or transfer electrons we try to give each atom the electronic configurations of the noble gas in the horizontal row of the periodic table (octet rule).
e. g. give hydrogen atoms two electrons like He structure and C, N, O and F eight electrons like Ne.

11. * The no. of valence electrons can be obtained from the periodic table because it is equal to the group number of the atom e. g. for carbon in IVA equal four and it has four electrons.
* Fluorine (F) in group VIIA has seven.
* Hydrogen in group IA has one.

12. Example1: Write the Lewis structure of CH3F
(1) We find the total no. of valence electrons of all the atoms.
C + 3H + F
4 + 3(1) + 7 = 14
(2) We use pairs of electrons to form bonds between all atoms that are bonded to each other.
We represent these bonding pairs with lines, in our example four pairs of electrons (8 of our 14 valance electrons).

13. (3) We then add the remaining electrons in pairs as to give each hydrogen 2 electrons and every other atom 8 electrons in our example the remaining 6 valence electrons were assigned to the Fluorine atom in three non bonding pairs (unshared electrons).
So the Lewis structure of CH3F is

14. Example 2: Write the Lewis structure of ClO3-
(1) We find the total no. of valence electrons of all the atoms and the extra electrons needed to give the ion a negative charge:
Cl + O3 + e-
7 + 3(6) + 1 = 26
(2) We use three pairs of electrons to form bonds between the chlorine atom and three oxygen atoms.

15. Example 3: Write the Lewis structure of C2H6
(3) then add the remaining 20 electrons in pairs to give each atom octet.
So the Lewis structure of ClO3- is
Example 3: Write the Lewis structure of C2H6
(1) We find the total no. of valence electrons of all the atoms:
2C + 6H
2(4) + 6(1) = 14
(2) We use three pairs of electrons to form bonds between the carbon and hydrogen atoms.

16. 7 X One pair (2 electron) = 14 electrons i. e. only 14 bonded electrons.
Formal charges:
When we write Lewis structure it is often convenient to assign unit positive or negative charge called "formal charge" to certain atoms in the molecule or ion.
Calculations of formal charges is a bookkeeping method for electrical charges, because the arithmetic sum of all of the formal charges equals the total charge on the molecule or ion.

17. Simply to calculate the formal charge for atoms in molecules or ions.
(1) Write the right Lewis structure.
(2) Use the equation
F = Z – S/2 – U for each atom in the molecule.
(3) To know the net hole charge of the molecule (should be zero) or ions; calculate the arithmetic sum of the all atoms in molecule or ion.
Ex. (1):
Ammonia NH3
* Write the Lewis structure of ammonia
N + 3H
5 + 3(1) = 8

18. To calculate the formal charge use the equation
F = Z – S/2 – U
Where
F Formal charge
Z group no. of the atom
S no. of shared (bonding electrons)
U no. of unshared (nonbonding electrons)
For NH3 the Lewis structure is

19. The formal charge of H is
For nitrogen
F = Z – S/2 – U
F = 5 – 6/2 – 2
F = 5 – 3 – 2 = 0
So the charge on NH3 molecule = sum. Of the formal charge of the constituent atoms
= F(N) + F3(H)
= 0 + 3(0) = 0

20. Ex. (2): H2O
(1) Write the Lewis structure of H2O
2H + O
2(1) + 6 = 8
F(H) = 1 – 2/2 – 0 = 0
F(O) = 6 – 4/2 – 4
F(O) = 6 – 2 – 4 = 0
So the charge on molecule = F(O) + F(H)=
0 + 0 = zero
so H2O is a neutral molecule

21. Ex. (3): HNO3
Write the Lewis structure of HNO3
because the hydrogen atom should attach to oxygen (mor electronegative atom).

22. F(H) = 1 – 2/2 – 0 = 0
F(O1) = 6 – 4/2 – 4 = 0
F(O2) = 6 – 2/2 – 6 = -1
F(O3) = 6 – 4/2 – 4 = 0
F(N) = 5 – 8/2 – 0 = +1
So the charge (net charge) on molecule =
F(O1) + F(O2) + F(O3) + F(N) +F(H)=
(-1) + (+1)= zero
so nitric acid is a neutral molecule
Ex. (4): NO3-
(1) Write the Lewis structure of NO3­

23. F(O1) = 6 – 2/2 – 6 = -1
F(O2) = 6 – 2/2 – 6 = -1
F(O3) = 6 – 4/2 – 4 = 0
So the charge (net charge) on molecule =
F(O1) + F(O2) + F(O3) + F(N) =
0 + (-1) + (-1) + (+1)= -1
so NO3­ has one negative charge.

24. Ex. (5): NH4+
* Write the Lewis structure of ammonia
N + 4H – e =
5 + 4(1) – 1 = 8
The formal charges
F(H) = 1 – 2/2 – 0 = 0
F(N)= 5 – 8/2 =
= 5 – 4 = +1
So the charge on ion = 4(0) + (+1)
= 0+ 1 =+1

25. Orbital hybridization structure of alkanes (sp3):
sp3 hybridization: According to the quantum mechanism the electronic configuration of a carbon in its lowest energy state-called the ground state. C6
1s22s22p2
1s22s12px12py12pz1
Looking only on the valence electrons the carbon atom has tow unpaired electrons i. e. it can only two bonds with hydrogen in its ground state.
To account (explain) the four covalent bonds of carbon, we should discuss "The hybridization of carbon orbitals".

26. C6 1s22s22p2 2P2 Ground state 2S2 Px Py Pz 1S2 excitation 2P3 2S1 Px
excited state Py Pz
1S2

27. Hybridization (sp3) i. e. ( one s + 3p)
i.e. Hybridization: mixing of orbitals of the same main shell. (the same principle quantium no.). to give new hybridized orbitals with the same energy.
Ex. (1): in methane CH4

28. * In methane (CH4) each C-H σ bond formed by the overlap of sp3 electron (from carbon) with 1s electron (from hydrogen)
* sp3 by hybridization and their compounds have tetrahedrol structure and the bond angle of H-C-H (in methane) or H-C-C- (in other alkanes) equals
i.e. sp3 compounds are non planer.
Ex. (2): for sp3 hybridization
ROH, ROR, H2O, NH3
NH3 ammonia structure: N5
1S21S22P3

29. 2P2
Ground state
2S2 Px Py Pz
1S2
excitation and hybridization
excited state
1S2
SP3
Formation of N-H bonds

30. σ- bonds
* The geometry of a molecule of ammonia is a triagonal pyramid.
* The bond angles in a molecule of ammonia are 107º
* The hybridization of Nitrogen atom in ammonia explains the presence of a lone pair of nonbonding (unshared) electrons which explains the basicity of ammonia.

31. Sp2 hybridization and the structure of thene (ethylene):
* Before we going to sp2 hybridization, we should know that the covalent bonds in carbon compounds are classified into:
(1) Sigma bond (σ- bond):
Formed by head-head overlap of
1s with 1s electrons
1s with px electrons
1s with sp3 electrons
1s with sp2 electrons
1s with sp electrons
px with px electrons
px with sp3 electrons
px with sp2 electrons
px with sp electrons

32. (2) Pi bond (Л bond):
Formed only by sidewise overlap of py with py electrons and pz with pz electrons.
sp2 hybridization of ethene:

33. C C 1s2 2s2 2p2 1s2 2s2 2p2 2P2 2P2 2S2 Px Py Pz Pz Py Px 2S2 1S2
Ground state
1S2
excitation
2P3
2P3 Pz Py Px
2S1 Px Py Pz
2S1
1S2
excitation (promotion of electron)
1S2

34. hybridization Py Py
SP2
sp2
1S2
1S2
1s1
1s1
sp2
sp2
sp2
sp2
sp2 Py Py
sp2
1s1
1s1

35. σ- bond
σ- bond
σ- bond
Л bond
σ- bond
σ- bond
* It is planer molecule
Sp hybridization:
This type of hybridization explained the band formation of alkynes.

36. C C 1s2 2s2 2p2 1s2 2s2 2p2 2P2 2P2 2S2 Px Py Pz Pz Py Px 2S2 1S2
Ground state
1S2
excitation
2P3
2P3 Pz Py Px
2S1 Px Py Pz
2S1
1S2
excitation (promotion of electron)
1S2

37. H C C H hybridization Py Pz Pz Py SP sp 1S2 Bond formation 1S2 Pz Pz

38. how many sp3-sp σ
sp2-sp3 σ
sp2-sp2 σ
sp-sp σ

39. SP
SP2
SP2 SP
SP2
SP2

40. Cleavage ( Breaking) of bonds:
A covalent bond between two atoms can be broken by two ways
(1) Homolytic bond fission:
i.e. each atom takes one electron of the bond electrons

41. For
Carbon-Carbon δ bond breaking
gave free radicals of SP2 hybridization
i.e

42. (2) Heterolytic bond fission:
sp3-sp3 σ
sp2-sp2 σ
sp-sp σ
sp3-sp2 σ
sp3-sp σ
sp2-sp σ

43. In the carbocations the hybridization is sp2 ( the carbocations are planer ).
In the carbanions the hybridization is sp3.
Types of Reagents:
Reagents can be classified into:-
(1) Nucleophiles (Nucleophilic) Reagents:
They are nucleus seeking species, may be negatively charged ions or groups or neutral atoms or groups and can react with the donating of electrons.

44. Examples of negative charged nucleophiles:-
neutral nucleophiles are Lewis bases such as:
(2) Electrophilic ( electrophilic) Reagents:
They react with accepting a lone pair of electrons, they are Lewis acids.

45. Examples of electrophiles:
(3) Free Radicals:
They are atoms or groups having one unpaired electrons, they are highly reactive with very short life time.
e.g.

46. Reaction Types:
There are four general types of reaction which organic compounds can under goes.
(a) Displacement (Substitution) Reactions.
(b) Addition Reactions.
(c) Elimination Reactions.
Rearrangement Reactions.
It is displacement from carbon, the atom displaced be either hydrogen or another atom or group and can be classified into:
(1) Nucleophilic substitution reactions.
It is often an atom other than hydrogen that is displaced.
e.g

47. (2) Electrophilic substitution reactions.
It is often hydrogen that is displaced.
e.g. aromatic substitution.
(Electrophilic substitution)

48. (b) Addition Reactions:
It can be electrophilic, nucleophilic or radical in character depending on the type of species that initiates the process.
e.g addition to simple carbon-carbon double bonds is either electrophilic or radical induced e.g. addition of HBr
Which can be initiated by the attach of either

49. Nucleophilic addition reaction:
e.g. the base catalyzed formation of cyanohydrins in liquid HCN

50. (C) Elimination Reactions:
The reversal of addition reactions.

51. (d) Rearrangement Reactions:
e.g. Pinacol- Pinacolone rearrangement

52. Represntative carbon compounds:
(1) Aliphatic hydrocarbons:
Saturated hydrocarbons
(1) Open chain Saturated hydrocarbons:
Ex. CH4 methane, CH3-CH3 ethane and all alkanes with general formula CnH2n+2
(2) Cyclic Saturated hydrocarbons: Ex

53. (1) Alkenes and cycloalkenes:
(b) Saturated hydrocarbons
(1) Alkenes and cycloalkenes:
Alkenes Ex.
and all hydrocarbons with general formula CnH2n
Cycloalkenes :
i.e cyclic hydrocarbons contain double bond Ex.

54. (2) Alkynes:
Unsaturated hydrocarbons contain triple bond CnH2n-2.

55. A Represntative Aromatic Hydrocarbons:
They are cyclic unsaturated hydrocarbons containing conjugated double bonds, example benzene is six membered ring with alternating single and double bonds called a Kekule structure.

56. In fact, the carbon-carbon bonds of benzene are all the same length (1
In fact, the carbon-carbon bonds of benzene are all the same length (1.39A), a value in between that of carbon-carbon single bond and carbon-carbon double bond.
There are two ways of dealing with this problem: with resonance theory or with molecular orbital theory.
Based on the principles of resonance theory we recognized that benzene can not be represented adequately by either structure but that, instead, it should be visualized as a hybrid of the two structures. We represent this hybrid by a hexagon with a circle in the middle.

57. A representation
of the resonance
hybrid
Two contributing Kekule
Structures for benzene
In the molecular orbital explanation.
Sp2 hybridized carbon

58. When the benzene ring is attached to some other group of atoms in a molecule, it is called a phenyl group and it is represented in several ways
or C6H5- or ph or ф
The combination of a phenyl group and a –CH2- group is called a benzyl group
or C6H5-CH2

59. • alkenes has carbon-carbon double
Functional groups:
A functional group is the part of a molecule where most of its reaction occur. It is the part that effectively determines the compound’s chemical properties and many of its physical properties as well.
• The functional group of alkanes is C-H and C-C
• alkenes has carbon-carbon double
as a functional group.
• The functional group of alkynes is carbon-carbon triple bond

60. Alkyl groups and the symbol R:
They are groups that would be obtained by removed a hydrogen atom from an alkane
Examples:

61. abbreviation
Alkyl group
Alkane
Me-
CH3-
(methyl group)
CH4
(methane)
Et-
CH3CH2- or C2H5-
(ethyl group)
CH3CH3
(ethane)
Pr-
i-Pr-
CH3CH2CH2-
(propyl group) or
CH3CH1CH3
(isopropyl group)
CH3CH2CH3
(propane)

62. Alkyl Halides or haloalkanes:
Alkyl halides are compounds in which a halogen atom ( fluorine, chlorine, bromine or iodine) replaces a hydrogen atom of an alkane.
Ex. CH3Cl methyl chloride
C2H5Br ethyl bromide
• Alkyl halides are classified into Primary (1º), or secondary (2º), or tertiary (3º) and this classification is based on the type of the carbon to which the halogen is directly attached.
• Examples of primary, secondary and tertiary alkyl halides are the following.

63. 1º carbon
2º carbon
1º alkyl chloride
2º alkyl chloride
3º carbon
3º alkyl chloride

64. • Alcohols may be viewed in two ways
Alcohols (R-OH):
The functional group of alcohols is the hydroxyl (OH) group attached to sp3- hybridized carbon atom.
is the functional group of an alcohol
Examples:
• CH3OH methyl alcohol (methanol), C2H5OH ethyl alcohol (ethanol)
• Alcohols may be viewed in two ways
(1) as hydroxy derivatives of alkanes.
(2) as alkyl derivatives of water.

65. Example 109º 105º ethane ethyl alcohol (ethanol) water
● As with alkyl halides, alcohols are classified into three groups Primary (1º), or secondary (2º), or tertiary (3º) alcohols
1º carbon
1º alcohol

66. Benzyl alcohol (1º alcohol)
Geraniol(1º alcohol)
● Primary carbon is the carbon atom which is attached to one other carbon.
● 1º carbon also has two other carbon atom attached to it.
● 3º carbon also has three other carbon atom attached to it.

67. 2º carbon
2º alcohol
2º alcohol
3º carbon
3º alcohol

68. Ethers:
Ethers have the general formula R-O-R or R-O-R’ where R, R’ are alkyl groups.
● ethers can be thought as derivatives of water which both hydrogen atoms have been replaced by alkyl groups.
General formula
for an ether
The functional
group of an ether
Dimethyl ether
(a typical ether)

69. Amines: ethylene oxide Tetra hydro furan (THF) Cyclic ether
● Amines may be considered as organic derivatives of ammonia
amphetamine
(1º amine)
ammonia
(an amine)

70. • Amines are classified as Primary (1º), or secondary (2º), or tertiary (3º) amines, this classification is based on the number of the organic groups (alkyl groups) that attached to the nitrogen atom.
1º amine
2º amine
3º amine
Examples:
Isopropyl amine
1º amine
Diethyl amine
2º amine

71. Aldehydes and ketones:
Tri ethyl amine
3º amine
Cyclic 2º amine
● The bond angle C-N-C in tri ethyl amine is 108,7º which is very close to H-C-H in methane, thus the nitrogen atom of an amine can to be sp3 hybridized and the unshared electron pair occupy an sp3 orbital.
Aldehydes and ketones:
Both contain the carbonyl group.
the carbonyl group.

72. • In aldehydes, the carbonyl group is bonded to least one hydrogen atom, i.e. aldehydes has the follwing general formula.
R may be hydrogen atom or alkyl group
• In ketones, the carbonyl group is bonded to two carbon atom, i.e. aldehydes has the following general formula.
Where R and R1 may be the same or different

73. Ketones
Aldehydes
acetone
Formaldehye
ethyl methyl ketone
Acetaldehyde
benzophenone
benzaldehyde

74. • Aldehydes and Ketones have a trigonal planar arrangement of groups around the carbonyl carbon. The carbon atom is sp2 hybridized
e.g in formaldehyde
121º
118º
121º
Carboxylic acids:
It have the general formula
the functional group
Is called the carboxyl group (carbonyl + hydroxyl)
Acarboxylic acid

75. Examples : The carboxyl group (1) formic acid (2) acetic acid (3)
benzoic acid

76. Amides:- They have the formula
Examples:
acetamide
N-Methylacetamide
N,N-diMethylacetamide
Esters:- esters have the general formula

77. Examples:
Ethyl acetate
it is prepared by this reaction

78. Physical properties and molecular structure: (1) Electronegativity:
• The electron cloud that bonds two atoms is not symmetrical except when the two atoms are the same and have the same substituents.
• The cloud is necessarily distorted toward one side of the bond depending on which atom maintains the greater attraction of the cloud.
• Electronegativity is the ability of atoms to attract the electron clouds to it’s side.
• Electronegativity can measured by Pauling method which is based on bond energies of diatomic molecules.

79. • some examples of the electronegativities of some atoms.
•Fluorine is the most electronegative elements in the periodic table.
• some examples of the electronegativities of some atoms.
1.2 Mg
2.5 I
4.0 F
0.9 Na C
3.5 O
0.7 Cs
2.1 H
3.0 Cl P N
2.0 B
2.8 Br
1.8 Si
2.6 S
Bond distances:
It the distance between the nucleus which form the molecule

81. • Bond distance is determined by X- ray diffraction ( for solid), electron diffraction ( for gases).
• Bond distances in a molecule are characteristic properties of the molecule which give some information about the chemical properties of that molecule.
•The bond distance of the vibration of the molecule.
•Bond distance are measured in angstrom Aº.
The effect of the vibration for a bond between two sp3.

82. Bond length Aº C-C bond in 1.540 ± 0.015 1.544 Diamond 1.532
t-butyl chloride ±
C2H6
n- butane to n-hexane ±
C2H5Cl
1.535 ± 0.001
isobutene
1.532 ± 0.003
C3H8

83. Table of Bond distances.
Typical compds.
Length Aº
Bond type
C=C
C-C
Ethylene
1.34
sp2- sp2
CH3CH3
1.54
sp3- sp3
Ketene
1.31
sp2- sp
CH3CHO, toluene
1.50
sp3- sp2
C≡C
Butadiene
1.48
Acetylene
1.20
sp- sp
Acrylonitrile
1.43
methane
1.11
(C-H)
sp3- H
cyanoacetylene
1.38

84. Typical compds. Length Aº Bond type C-N C-H Amines sp3- N Benzene 1.10
sp2- H
C=N
HCN, acetylene
1.08
sp- H
Oximes, imines
1.28
sp2- N
C-O
1.38
sp3- F
Dimethyl ether
1.41
sp3- O
1.35
sp2- F
C=O
1.27
sp- F
Formaldehyde
1.20
sp2- O
CO2
1.16
sp- O

85. • As the percentage of s increas the bond distance is shortened, C-D is shorter than C-H.
Bond angle:
The angle between two molecular orbitals ( three atom, and central atom). S
120º
109º28`
109º28`
120º
SP2
SP3 S

86. Oxygen, Sulfur, Nitrogen bond angles:-
Compd.
Value
Angle
(CH3)2S
C-S-C
water
104º.27`
H-O-H
NH3
106º.46`
H-N-H
methanol
107º-109º
C-O-H
CH3NH2
106º
(CH3)2O
111º.43`
C-O-C
(CH3)2NH
112º
C-N-H
(ph)2O
124º.5`
(CH3)3N
108º.7`
H2S
92º.1`
H-S-H
CH3SH
99º.4`
C-S-H

87. There are two kinds of bond energy.
Bond Energies:
There are two kinds of bond energy.
(1) Dissociation energy D Which defined as the energy necessary for cleavage a bond to give the constituent radical.
e.g. D for water
+118 kcal/mol
and D for OH bond in water is
+100 kcal/mol
● The average is 109 kcal/mol is taken as bond energy.
● In diatomic molecules D=E.

88. Table: Bond energy E values for some important bonds
Cal. from
Mean value E kcal/mol
Bond
CCl4 79
C-Cl
H2O
O-H
C2H5-SH 66
C-S
CH4
96-99
C-H
CH≡CH
C≡C
NH3 93
N-H
(CH2=CH2
C=C
H2S 82
S-H
CH3I 52
C-I
CH3OH
85-91
C-O
C2H6
83-85
C-C

89. From the previous Table
(1) There is a correlation of bond strengths with bond distances in general, shorter bonds are stronger bonds. Since we have seen that increasing S character shortens bonds
bond strengths increase with increasing S character.
(2) Bonds become weaker as we move down the periodic table.
Compare C-O and C-S and C-Cl and C-I.
(3) Double bonds are shorter and stronger than the corresponding single bonds but not twice as strong because Л overlap is less than σ overlap. This means that a σ bond is stronger than a Л bond.

90. The difference in energy between a single bond, say C-C and C=C is the amount of the energy necessary to cause rotation a round the double bond.
Polarity of bonds:
Two atoms joined by a covalent bond, share electrons and their nuclei are held by the same electron cloud.
• In most cases the two nuclei do not share the electrons equally; the electron cloud is denser about one atom than the other i.e. one end is relatively negative and the other is relatively positive ( δ- & δ+).

91. i.e. there is a negative pole and a positive pole such bond is called polar bond or to possess polarity.
• We can indicate polarity using δ- & δ+, δ+ is partial positive, δ- is partial negative. Some time we say delta plus and delta minus. δ- δ- δ+ δ- δ+ δ+ δ+ δ+ δ+
polar bonds
• We can expect a covalent bond to be polar if it join atoms that differ in electronegativity.
• The most electronegative elements are those located in the upper right hand corner of the periodic table.

92. • Bond polarities are concerned with physical and chemical properties.
Electronegativity can arrange in the following order
F >O >Cl, N >Br >C,H
• Bond polarities are concerned with physical and chemical properties.
e.g The polarity of bonds leads to polarity of molecules which affect the melting point, boiling point and solubility.
The polarity of a bond determines the kind of reaction that can take place at that bond and even affects reactivity of near by bonds.
Polarity of molecules:-
• They are molecules which contain polar bonds, such a molecule constitutes a dipole ( two equal and opposite chages separate in space).

93. ∴ μ (Debye) = e (e.s.u) x d (Cm)
• A dipole is often symbolized by where the arraw points from positive to negative.
Polar molecules possess a dipole moment μ which is equal to the magnitude of the charge e, multiplied by distance d between the centers of the charge.
∴ μ (Debye) = e (e.s.u) x d (Cm)
Table of Dipole moments
1.86
CH3Cl
1.75 HF H2
CCl4
1.84
H2O O2
CO2
1.46
NH3 N2
CH4
Cl2

94. • Molecules like H2, O2, N2, Cl2 and Br2 have zero dipole moments i. e
• Molecules like H2, O2, N2, Cl2 and Br2 have zero dipole moments i.e. They are non- polar, since each molecule has two identical atoms e is zero hence μ = 0
• HF has large μ of 1.75 D, F is very high dectro- negativity, d is small and e is large μ is large too.

95. Melting point:- ∆ i.e. liquid Solid
It is the temperature at which the thermal energy of the particles is great enough to over come the intracrystalline forces that hold them in position.
i.e. ∆
liquid
Solid
Crystalline is arranged in very regular symmetrical way ( highly ordered)
More random arrangement

96. Intermolecular forces:-
The forces hold neutral molecules to each other seen to be electrostatic in natural involving attraction of positive charge for negative charge.
• There are two kinds of inter molecular forces.
Dipole – Dipole interactions.
(2) Van der Waals forces.
(1) dipole – dipole interaction is the attraction of the positive end of one polar molecule for the negative end of another polar molecule.
+ - or
- +

97. ● As a result of dipole – dipole interaction, polar molecules are generally held to each other more strongly than non-polar molecules of comparable molecular weight.
Hydrogen bonding: it is strong kind of dipole-dipole attraction in which a hydrogen atom serves as a bridge between two electronegative atom holding one by a covalent bond and the other by purely electrostatic forces.
● For hydrogen bonding both electronegative atoms must come from the group F, O, N.
5 kcal/ mol ……
kcal/ mol

98. …… ……
& or ……
● These three elements owl their special effectiveness to the concentrated negative charge on their small atoms.
● Hydrogen bonding affects the b. p. and solubility properties of compounds and plays a key role in determining the shapes of large molecules like proteins and nucleic acids.

99. Van der Waals forces:-
The forces between the molecules of non- polar compound which make them can solidify.
Van der Waals forces can explained by the following:
The average distribution of charge about say a methane molecule is symmetrical so that there in no net dipole moment. However the electrons move about so that at any instant of time the distribution will probably be distorted and a small dipole will exist. This momentary dipole will affect the second methane molecule near by the negative end of the dipole tends to repel electrons and the positive end tends to attract electrons, the dipole thus induces an oriented dipole in the neighboring molecule.

100. • Although the momentary dipole and induced dipoles are constantly changing the net result is attraction between the two molecules.
• Van der Waals forces have a very short range, they act only between the portion of different molecules that are in close contact that is between the surfaces of molecules.
Boiling points:-
The temperature at which the thermal energy of the particles is great enough to overcome the cohesive force that hold them in the liquid.
• In the liquid state the unit of a non- ionic compound is the molecule. The weak intermolecular forces of non – ionic liquid is dipole – dipole interactions and van der waals forces are more readily overcome than the strong interionic

101. forces of ionic compounds and boils at very much lower temperature.
e.g. the non – polar methane boils at ° and even polar HCl boils at - 85°.
• liquids whose molecules are held together by hydrogen bonds are called associated liquids and boil at higher b. p. than compounds of there molecular weight and dipole moment.
e.g.
HF boils at 100 degree higher than the non – associated HCl.
H2O boils at 160 degree higher H2S.
• Boiling points increase as molecular weights increase.

102. Dipole – Dipole forces:-
Most organic molecules are not fully ionic but have instead a permanent dipole moment resulting from a non uniform distribution of the bonding electrons. δ+ δ- δ+ δ-
Solubility: non- ionic solute when a solid or liquid dissolves the structural units ions or molecules become separated from each other and the space in between become occupied by solvent molecules. The energy required to break the bonds between solute particles is supplied by the formation of bonds between the solute particles and the solvent molecules i. e. the old attractive forces are replaced by new ones.

103. • The highly polar organic compound methanol CH3OH is
The solubility characteristics of non – ionic compounds are determined by their polarity. Non–polar or weakly polar compounds dissolve in non-polar or weakly polar solvents, highly polar compounds dissolve in highly polar solvents
“ like dissolves like” it is useful rule.
e.g. methane dissolve in carbon tetrachloride molecules to each other is Van der Waals interaction are replaced by very similar forces holding methane molecules to carbon tetrachloride molecules.
• Neither methane nor carbon tetrachloride is readily soluble in water. The highly polar water molecules are held to each other by very strong dipole – dipole interactions hydrogen bonds.
• The highly polar organic compound methanol CH3OH is

104. quite soluble in water, hydrogen bonds between water and methanol molecule can replace the very similar hydrogen bonds between different methanol molecules and different water molecules.
Alcohols:
Non polar part like methane hydrophobic (water hating) some times called lipophilic
( solubility in non polar solvents).
polar part like water hydrophilic (water loving) ( solubility in polar solvents).

105. Tables of solubility of alcohols in water.
Solubility g/100g water
alcohol
7.9
CH3(CH2)3OH X
CH3OH
2.3
CH3(CH2)4OH
CH3CH2OH
0.05
CH3(CH2)7OH
CH3CH2CH2OH
• From the above table it is clear that as the lipophilic increase the solubility in water decrease.

106. Solubility: ionic solutes. Protic and aprotic solvents and ion pairs:
In the dissolution of ionic compounds a great deal of energy is necessary to overcome the powerful electrostatic forces holding together in an ionic lattice. Only water or other highly polar solvents that are able to dissolve ionic compounds.
Polar molecule has positive and negative ends, consequently, there is electrostatic attraction between a positive ion and the negative end of the solvents molecule and between a negative ion and the positive end of the solvent molecule, these attractions are called ion – dipole bonds. Each ion – dipole bond is relatively weak but in the aggregate they supply enough energy to overcome the interionic forces in the crystal.

107. Ion – dipole interactions, solvated ( hydrated in case of H2O) cation & anion
To dissolve ionic compounds a solvent must also have a high dielectric constant, that is have high insulating properties to lower the attraction between oppositely charged ions once they are solvated.
• Water owes its superiority as a solvent for ionic substances in part to its high polarity and high dielectric constant.

108. • Cations are attracted to the negative pole of a polar solvent, in water the negative pole is oxygen. δ+ δ- …… δ+
• Anions are attracted to the positive pole of a polar molecule, in water the positive poles are an hydrogen. δ+ δ- …… δ+

109. • Hydrogen bonding permits particularly strong solvation of anions
• Hydrogen bonding permits particularly strong solvation of anions. Thus, water owes a large part of its special solvating power to its OH group: it solvates cations strongly through the unshared pairs on oxygen; it solvates anions strongly through hydrogen bonding.
• CH3OH resembles H2O having an OH group dissolves ionic compound. CH3OH is less polar than water, CH3- group is bigger than the second –H of water.
Protic solvents: solvents like water and methanol are called Protic solvents containing hydrogen that is attached to oxygen or nitrogen and hence is appreciably acidic.

110. Aprotic solvents: polar solvents with moderately high dielectric constants which do not contain acidic hydrogen.
Dimethylsulfoxide
DMSO
Dimethyl formamide
DMF
Hexamethylphosphoro-
-triamide (HMOT)
They dissolve ionic compounds but in doing their action differ from protic solvents, they can not form hydrogen bonds to anions.
They are highly polar with dipole moments several times as large as that of water. The negative pole in aprotic solvents is an oxygen atom that just out from the rest of the molecules. Through unshared pairs of electrons on these negatively charged well exposed atoms. Cations are solvated very

111. The positive pole is buried within the molecule and anions are solvated very weakly.
water dissolves ionic compounds very well but poor solvent for most organic compounds, this difficulty can be overcome by addition of second solvent like methane, methanol’s hydrophilic –OH makes it miscible with water, through its lipophilic CH3 it brings about dissolution of organic compounds.
CH3CH2OH does like CH3OH dissolve both ionic and non-ionic compounds.
Polar covalent bonds:
when two atoms of different electronegativities from a covalent bond, the electrons are not shared equally between them.

112. The atom with greater electronegativity draws the electron pair closer to it and a polar covalent bond result. δ+ δ- δ- δ+
∴ HCl has a partially negative end with charge δ- and a partially positive end with δ+ charge and hence forms a dipole and has
a dipole moment μ = 1.08 D ∴
(positive end)
(negative end)

113. Acids and bases:-
The terms acid and base can be defined in a number of ways, According to the Lowry- Bronsted definition acid is a substance that gives up a proton and a base is substance that accepts a proton.
Ex. + -c
weaker
acid
Stronger
acid
Stronger
base
weaker
base - +
Stronger
acid
Stronger
base
weaker
acid
weaker
base

114. According to the Lowry definition, the strength of an acid depends upon its tendency to give up a proton and the strength of a base depends upon its tendency to accept a proton.
Ex. H2SO4 & HCl are strong acids because they tend to give up a proton very readily. Conversely HSO4- and Cl- must be weak bases.
If aqueous H2SO4 is mixed with aqueous NaOH, the acid H3O+ gives a proton to the base OH- to form the new acid H2O and the new base H2O. + -
stronger
acid
stronger
base
weaker
acid
weaker
base

115. ∴ Base strength - Also for NH4Cl and NaOH +
weaker
base
stronger
base
weaker
acid
stronger
acid
Acids are arranged in the following order:
Acid strength:
H2SO4, H3O+ > NH4+ >H2O
for the corresponding conjugate bases have the opposite order
∴ Base strength
HSO4-, Cl- < H2O < NH3 <OH-
Like H2O many organic compounds that contain oxygen can act as bases and accept protons.

116. Ex. 1 Ex. 2 + - oxonium protonated ethyl alcohol + -
oxonium protonated diethyl ether

117. Lewis definition of bases and acids:-
Base is a substance that can furnish an electron pair to form a coordination bond i.e. the base is electron pair donor e. g.
Lewis acid is a substance that can take up an electron pair to form a coordination bond i. e. is an electron pair acceptor e. g.
equation of lewid acids bases reactions:
(1)

118. (2)
To be acidic in the Lowry- Bronsted sense, a molecule must of course contain hydrogen and the degree of acidic is determined largely by the kind of atoms that holds the hydrogen and the ability to accommodate the electron pair left behind by the departing hydrogenation.
The ability to accommodate the electron pair depends upon.
(1) The atom’ s electronegativity.
(2) The atom’ s size.
Thus within a given row of the periodic table.

119. Acids and Bases in Nan-aqueous solutions:-
acidity increases as electronegativity increases
H-CH3 < H-OH2 < H-OH < H-F < H-SH < H-Cl
within a given family acidity increases as the atomic size increase.
H-F < H-Cl< H-Br < H-I < H-OH < H-SH < H-SeH
Acids and Bases in Nan-aqueous solutions:-
Many of the organic acid-base reactions occur in solutions. These acids are much weaker acids than water and the conjugate base of these very weak acids are powerful bases. Reactions of organic compounds are carried out in liquid ammonia. The most powerful base that can employed in liquid ammonia is the amide ion –NH2.

120. Ethane and all other alkanes are much weaker acids tha ammonia.
The general order of the acidity of some weak acids.
RH < RCH=CH2 < H2 < NH3 < R-C≡CH < ROH < H2O < RCOOH
increasing acidity

121. The order of basicity of conjugate bases
R:- > RCH=CH:- > H:- > -:NH2 > RCH≡C:- > RO:- > :OH- > RCO2-
increasing basicity
Acid – base reactions and the preparation of deuterium and tritium labeled compounds:
Chemists often use compounds in which deuterium and tritium atoms have replaced one or more hydrogen atoms of the compounds as a method of “ Labeling ” or identifying particular hydrogen atoms D is H & Tritium H.
One way to introduce deuterium or tritium into a specific location in a molecule is 2 3 1 1

122. Through acid – base reaction that takes place when a very strong base is treated with D2O or T2O.
e.g.
Isomerism:
Isomerism: compounds have the same molecular formula and different physical and chemical properties due to the difference in structural formula.

123. Toutomersion: it is rapid equilibrium between a mixture
e.g. C2H6O can be
Dimethyl ether
H3C-O-CH3
b. p. -24°
+ HI CH3I
+ Na No reaction
Ethanol
H3CCH2OH
b. p. 78°
+ HI CH3CH2I
+ Na C2H5ONa + H2
Toutomersion: it is rapid equilibrium between a mixture
Definite compound, it is a proton shifts from one atom of a molecule to another atom.
Keto–Enol toutomersion:-
It takes place between a carbonyl compounds containing an α- hydrogen and its enol form.

124. The % of enol is affected by the structure, solvent, concentration and temperature.
• Ethyl acetoacetate is in high % enol form because it is stabilized by internal hydrogen bonding which is unavailable to the keto form.

125. Constitutional Isomers:
“isomer” is composed of two part “iso” in Greek words means the “same” and “meros” means part i.e. isomer means the same part.
Constitutional (structural) isomers:
They are compounds having the same molecular formula but differ in the way of their atoms are bonded together (structural) formula.
Ex. 1: urea and ammonium cyanate have the same molecular formula CH4N2O and different structures.

126. Ex.2: nitro methane and methyl nitrite CH3NO2

127. Aromatic hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are compounds composed of carbon and hydrogen only and they are classified as follows
Hydrocarbons
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Aromatic hydrocarbons
( arenes)
Alkanes
CH3-CH3
Ethane
Alkenes
CH2=CH2
Ethylene
Alkynes
CH≡CH
acetylene
benzene

128. Alkanes
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons and are classified into.
Alkanes
cyclic alkanes
General formula (CnH2n)
e.g.
a cyclic alkanes
General formula (CnH2n+2)
e.g.
CH methane
C2H ethane
C3H propane
C4H butane

129. A cyclic Alkanes Nomenclature of unbranched Alkanes:
They are saturated hydrocarbons having the general formula CnH2n+2and they are found as branched and unbranched alkanes.
Nomenclature of unbranched Alkanes:
They are found as straight carbon chain ( called n-alkanes).
e.g. CH4 methane, CH3CH3 ethane, CH3CH2CH3 propane, CH3CH2CH2CH3 n-butane, CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 n-pentane, CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3 n-hexane, CH3(CH2)5CH3 n-heptane, CH3(CH2)6CH3 n-octane, CH3(CH2)7CH3 n-nonane, CH3(CH2)8CH3 n-decan.
For writing the accurate structure of sp3 hybridization e.g.

130. For simple representation we can use the Zigzag structure (bond- line structure).
e.g. CH3(CH2)4CH3 n-hexane can be shown as. ≡

131. Classification of carbon atoms:
Note: The alkanes take the suffix ane.
Alkyl groups:
e.g. CH3- methyl, CH3CH2- ethyl, CH3CH2CH2- n-propyl, CH3CH2CH2CH2- n-butyl, CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2- n-pentyl.
Classification of carbon atoms:
Carbon atoms are classified according to their degree of substitution by other carbons.
• A primary carbon is one that is directly attached to one other carbon.

132. • Secondary carbon is directly attached to two other carbon atoms.
• A tertiary carbon is directly attached to three carbon atoms.

133. • A quaternary carbon is directly attached to four carbon atoms.
• There is no quaternary alkyl group.

134. Com. Names (trivial)
methane
CH3- methyl
CH3CH2- ethyl
CH3CH2CH2- n-propyl
CH3CH2CH2CH2- n-butyl
ethane
propane
n- butane
iso-butane
iso-butyl
n- pentane
iso- pentane
neo- pentane

135. Branched Alkyl groups:
They are named by using the longest continuous chain that begins at the point of attachment as the base name.
i.e. Numbering starts from the carbon where the hydrogen atom was removed.
e.g CH3CH2CH2- n- propyl group,
IUPAC methyl ethyl group
(comm.) isopropyl

136. ≡
isobutyl group
tertiarybutyl group

137. n- pentane
n- pentyl
iso- pentane
iso- pentyl

138. ≡
neo- pentane
neo- pentyl
IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) Nomenclature:-
e.g. (1) 1 2 3
1- Methyl propyl group

139. e.g. 2 2- Methylpropyl group e.g. 3 1,1- Dimethyl ethyl group
(tert-butyl)

140. Systematic IUPAC Nomenclature of branched Alkanes:-
Branched- chain alkanes are named according to the following rules:-
(1) Locate the longest continues chain of carbon atoms; this chain determines the base name of the alkane.
e.g. 1 6 4 2
heptane 7 5 3 1
e.g. 2 1 5 3
hexane 6 4 2
(2) Number the longest chain beginning with the end the chain nearest constituent. (give the position of the constituent the lowest).

141. • Numbers are separated from words by a hyphen. e.g.5 3 1 6 4 6 4 2 7 5 3
substituent 2 ok 1
(3) Use the numbers obtained by application of rule 2 to designate the location of the substituent group, the base name is placed last, and the substituent group, preceded by the number designating its location on the chain, is placed first.
• Numbers are separated from words by a hyphen. e.g.

142. ≡ 2- Methylhexane ≡ 2- Methylheptane4 ≡ 2 6 6 5 4 3 2 1 5 3 1
2- Methylhexane ≡ 6 4 2 6 5 4 1 7 7 3 2 5 3 1
2- Methylheptane
(4) When two or more substituents are present, give each substituents a number corresponding to its location on the longest chain.

143. 4- ethyl-2-methylhexane1 2 3 4 5 6 5 3 6 4 2 1
4- ethyl-2-methylhexane
• The groups should be listed alphabetically (i.e. ethyl before methyl).
• In deciding on alphabetical order disregard multiplying prefixes such as “di” “tri” and disregard structure –defining prefixes that are written in italics and are separated from the name by a hyphen such as sec- and tert- and consider the initial letter (s) of the substituent name.
Thus ethyl precedes dimethyl and tert- butyl precedes ethyl but ethyl precedes isobutyl.

144. 3- ethyl-3-methyl hexane
5- when two or more substituents are present on the same carbon atom use that number twice e.g..
3- ethyl-3-methyl hexane
6- when two or more substituents are identical, identical this by the use of prefixes di, tri, tetra, …. and so on and then make certain that each and every substituent has a number. Commas are used separate numbers from the other.

145. ≡ 2,3- dimethylbutane 2,3,4- trimethylpentane1 4 1
2,3- dimethylbutane 3 1 5 4 2 5 3 2 1 4
2,3,4- trimethylpentane 5 3 1 4 2 4 2 3 1 5
2,2,4,4- tetramethylpentane

146. not 4- sec-butyl-2,3- dimethylheptane
7- when two chains of equal length compete selection as base chain, choose the chain with the greater number of substituents. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
2,3,5- tri methyl-4-propyl heptane
(four substituents)
not 4- sec-butyl-2,3- dimethylheptane
(three substituents)

147. (not 2,4,5- tri methyl hexane)
8- when branching first occurs at an equal distance from either end of the longest chain, choose the name that gives the lower number at the first point of difference. 6 5 4 3 2 1 2 4 1 3 5 6
2,3,5- tri methyl hexane
(not 2,4,5- tri methyl hexane)
Classification of hydrogen atoms:-
The hydrogen atoms of an alkane are classified on the basis of carbon atom to which they are attached. A hydrogen atom attached to a primary carbon atom is a primary hydrogen atom, attached to secondary carbon is a secondary hydrogen, and attached to tertiary carbon is a tertiary hydrogen.

148. Example: 2- methyl butane has primary (1°), secondary (2°), tertiary (3°) hydrogens.
1° hydrogen atom
3° hydrogen atom
2° hydrogen atom
1° hydrogen atom ≡
2° hydrogen atom
3° hydrogen atom

149. Cycloalkanes Nomenclature:
• Cycloalkanes are also called alicyclic (aliphatic cyclic) hydrocarbons.
Cycloalkanes are alkanes in which two carbons are bonded together to form a ring, they are characterized by the molecular formula CnH2n.
Examples: ≡
cyclopropane
cyclobutane

150. ≡
cyclopentane
cyclohexane
• Cycloalkanes are named under the IUPAC system, by adding the prefix cyclo to the name of the unbranched alkane with the same number of carbons as the ring.

151. 3-Ethyl-1,1-di methylcyclopentane
Substituent groups are identified in the usual way.
• The positions of the substituents are specified by numbering the carbon atoms of the ring in the direction that gives the lowest number to the substituent groups at the first point of difference.
Ethyl cyclopentane 1 6 2 5 3 4
3-Ethyl-1,1-di methylcyclopentane

152. 1-ethyl-3-methylcyclohexane4 2 6 2 5 3 1 5 4 6
1-ethyl-3-methylcyclohexane
(not 3-ethyl-1-methylcyclohexane)
(not 1-ethyl-5-methylcyclohexane)
• When the ring contains fewer carbon atoms than an alkyl group attached to it, the compound is named as an alkane and the ring is treated as cycloalkyl substituent:

153. 1-ethyl-2-methylcyclopentane 1,1-dimethyl-2-propylcyclopentane4 3 5 1 1 2 3 4 5 6
3-cyclopropylhexane
3-cyclobutylpentane 3 1 2 4 6 2 5 1 5 3
1-ethyl-2-methylcyclopentane 4
1,1-dimethyl-2-propylcyclopentane

154. Functional groups in hydrocarbons and substituted alkanes:-
• A functional group of a compound is the structural unit of this molecule that is responsible for its chemical reactivity under a particular set of conditions.
• The functional group may be single atom or a set of atom.
• The functional group of a hydrocarbon is any one of its hydrogens, the reactivity of hydrocarbons may be illustrated by replacement with chlorine.

155. Example Subst. Alkane Alkane R-OH R-H R-X R-NH2 R-O-R
Substituted Alkanes:-
• The hydrogen atoms of alkanes are not reactive.
• When a group replace a hydrogen in alkane, the group becomes almost functional group.
Examples of functionally substituted alkanes:-
Example
Subst. Alkane
Alkane
C2H5OH
Ethanol
R-OH
R-H
C2H5Cl
Ethyl Chloride
R-X
C2H5NH2
Ethyl Amine
R-NH2
C2H5OC2H5
Diethyl ether
R-O-R

156. Example Subst. Alkane Alkane R-CN R-H R-NO2 R-SH Epoxide C2H5CN
Propane nitrile
R-CN
R-H
C2H5NO2
Nitroethane
R-NO2
C2H5SH
Ethanethiol
R-SH
Epoxide
Ethylene Oxide

157. Example 2 The C5H12 isomers
There are three isomeric alkanes having the molecular formula. C5H12
CH3(CH2)2CH3 ≡
Comm. Name: n- pentane
IUPAC name: pentane ≡
Comm. Name: isopentane
IUPAC name: methyl butane

158. Sources of hydrocarbons:-≡
Comm. Name: neo- pentane
IUPAC name: 2,2- di methyl propane
Sources of hydrocarbons:-
Hydrocarbons are the main constituents of petroleum.
• C1-C4 gas, Heating, cooking, petrochemical, raw material.
• C5-C12 liquids (Naphtha), Fuel, lighter fraction, petroleum ether b. p °C, laboratory solvents.
• C12-C15 Kerosene, fuel.
• C15-C18 Fuel oil, diesel fuel.
• Over C40 lubricating oil, greases, paraffin waxes, asphalt.

159. The Biological effects of alkanes:-
• Gasoline, which is a mixture of alkanes should not be swallows because it contains additives such as tetra ethyl lead which is quite poisonous.
• Liquid alkanes can cause damage if they get into lungs.
• They dissolve the liquid molecules in the cell membranes.
• Liquid alkanes can also harm the skin by dissolving the natural body oils and cause the skin to out.
• Mixtures of high molecular weight liquid alkanes are used to soften and moisten skin. Example petroleum jel “vaseline” which used to protect skin and it can protect babies from diaper rash caused by the skin’ contact with urine.

160. Conformations of alkanes and cycloalkanes:-
The different spatial arrangements that result from rotation about single bond in a particular molecule are called, Conformations, Conformers, rotational isomers or rotamers.
Conformational analysis of Ethane:
Ethane exists in two conformations known the staggered conformation and the eclipsed conformation and can represented as follow.

161. Staggered conformation of ehtane Eclipsed conformation of ehtane
(a) Wedge- and dash
(b) Newman projection
(c) Sawhorse
Eclipsed conformation of ehtane
(a) Wedge- and dash
(b) Newman projection
(c) Sawhorse

162. The H-C-C-H unit in ethane is characterized by a torsion angle ( dihedral angle).
• Torsion angle is the angle between the H-C-C plane and the C-C-H plane and H-C-C-H unit. 0°
60°
180°
Torsion angle = 0°
Eclipsed
Torsion angle = 60°
Gauche
Torsion angle =180°
Anti

163. The staggered and eclipsed conformations of ethane are interconvertable by rotation about its C-C single bond.
The angle between hydrogens and the two carbons of ethane is called the “ torsion angle” or “ dihedral angle”.
The torsion angle in staggered conformation is 60° while eclipsed form it is 0 °.
The spatial relationship between substituents in the staggered conformation is called “ gauche”.
Between the staggered and eclipsed conformation there will be an infinite number of conformations that differ by tiny increments in their torsion angle and are known as “ skew” conformation.
Conformational analysis of Butane:
* Butane posses two different staggered conformations in the first the two methyl groups in gauche relation. in the second they are anti to each other

164. * In the gauche conformation of butane, a hydrogen form each methyl group will be very close to each other to the extent that they repel each other, the repulsive destabilization of a molecule resulting from crowding of atoms or groups is called “ Van der Waals strain”, “ Steric hindrance”
Gauche conformation

165. Anti conformation

167. Conformation of cyclohexane:
* Cyclohexane exists in a stable conformation known “chair” conformation, this conformation is free of angle strain becouse all of its bonds are staggered
Chair conformation
“ more stable”

168. * Newman projection of the chair conformation of cyclohexane.

169. Boat conformation
Less stable because a steric strain of two flagpole hydrogens and torsional strain due to eclipsing of the bond on four of its carbon.
Torsional strain

170. Synthesis of Alkanes:
Hydrogenation of Alkenes
General Reaction

171. (2) Reduction of Alkyl halides General Reaction
(3) Lithium Dialkylcuprates:
The Corey-Posner, Whitesides House synthesis:-
The over all synthesis:

172. Reaction steps:
Restirictions of the reaction:

173. R-X is any alkyl halide, R’-X is a methyl, 1° alkyl or 2° cycloalkyl halide

174. Outline the synthesis of
Using Cory-House synthesis? or

175. Reactions of Alkanes: (1) Halogenation of Alkanes X=F fluorination
X=Cl chlorination
X=Br bromination
X=I iodination
The order of reactivity is F>Cl >Br >I
* Fluorination is very vigorous exothermic reaction and is not used in the laboratory.
* Iodination is an endothermic reaction and alkyl iodides are not prepared by direct iodination of alkanes.

176. Chlorination of methane:-
* In presence of heat or light

177. Mechanism of Chlorination of methane:-
Initiation step
Propagation step
Termination step

178. > > > > > >
Structure and Stability of Free Radicals:-
>
>
>
Tertiary
Free radical
Secondary
Free radical
Primary
Free radical
methyl
Free radical
Also carbocations
>
>
>
Tertiary
carbocation
Secondary
carbocation
Primary
carbocation
methyl
carbocation

179. * Chlorination of methane, ethane, cyclobutane gives only mono halogen derivatives.
* Chlorination is less selective process (i.e. Cl2 is highly reactive and less selective).
* Chloriniation of alkanes containing nonequivalent hydrogen affords mixture of mono halogen derivatives (all possible derivatives)

180. * Bromination process is milder than chlorination and more selective.
e.g. bromination yields the tert-mono bromoalkane almost exclusively

182. Alkenes
Alkenes are hydrocarbons that contain a Carbon-Carbon double. Their functional group is a Carbon-Carbon double bond. They have the general formula when they have one double bond and alicyclic is CnH2n.
Nomenclature of alkenes and cycloalkenes:
* There are old names for simple alkenes for example.
2-methyl
Propene
IUPAC:
Ethene
Propene
Com.:
Ethylene
Propylene
isobutylene

183. The IUPAC Rules for naming Alkene:
Determine the longer carbon chain that contains the double bond, change the ending of the alkane to ene.
Number the carbon chain that include the double bond and begin numbering at the double bond;
Designate the location of the double bond by using the number of the first atom of the double bond as a prefix. 2 4 1 3 5 3 1 2 1 3 4 6 6 4 2 2 4 1 5 3
1-Butene
2-Hexene
(Not 3-Butene)
(Not 4-Hexene)

184. (Not 3-methyl-2-butene) (Not 2,5-dimethyl-4-hexene)
Indicate the location of the substituent groups by the numbers of the carbon atoms to which they are attached.
Examples: 3 1 5 2 4 6 4 2 6 4 2 3 1 5 3 1 1 3 2 4
2-methyl-2-butene
2,5-dimethyl-2-hexene
(Not 3-methyl-2-butene)
(Not 2,5-dimethyl-4-hexene) 2 1 3 5 4 3 2 4 6 1 1 3 6 4 2 5 3 2 4 1
5,5-dimethyl-2-hexene
1-chloro-2-butene
(Not 2,2-dimethyl-4-hexene)
(Not 4-chloro-2-butene)

185. 3,5-dimethylcyclohexene
(4) Number substituted cycloalkenes in the way that gives the carbon atoms of double the 1- and2-positions that gives the substituent groups the lower numbers at the first point of difference. The position of the double is not nescessary to specify (mentioned).
Examples: 1 2 6 2 1 3 1 2 2 4 6 3 1 5 5 4
1-methylcyclopentene
3,5-dimethylcyclohexene
(Not 4,6-dimethylcyclohexene)
(Not 2-methylcyclopentene)

186. (5) Two frequently encountered groups are the vinyl group and ally group.
the vinyl group (ethenyl)
the allyl group
(2-propenyl)
e.g
Bromo ethene
(vinyl bromide)
3-chloropropene
(allyl chloride)

187. Designate the geometry of the double bond of disubstituted alkene with perfixes Cis and trans (cis: two identical groups on the same side, trans if the two identical groups on opposite sides).
e.g.
Cis 1,2-dichloroethene
trans1,2-dichloroethene

188. Structure and Bonding in alkenes
Ex.
1s1
1s1
sp2
sp2
sp2
sp2 Py Py
sp2
sp2
1s1
1s1
Ethene (ethylene)

189. Higher alkenes are related to ethylene by replacement of hydrogen substituents by alkyl groups. There are two different types of carbon-carbon bonds in propene,
CH3-CH=CH2, the double bond is of the δ+Π type, and the bond to the methyl group is a δ bond formed by sp3- sp3 overlap.
SP3 hybridized carbon
SP2 hybridized carbon

190. Isomerisation in alkene (Cis & trans isomerisation):
The alkene hydrocarbon C4H8 can exist in four isomers
Ex.1
1-butene
2-methylpropene
( No cis, trans isomerism here)
trans 2-butene
Cis 2-butene
( two geometrical isomerism)

191. Naming stereo isomeric alkenes by the E-Z system:
Ex.2
Cis -isomer
maleic acid
trans -isomer
fumaric acid
Naming stereo isomeric alkenes by the E-Z system:
When one of two different substituents on a carbon of the C=C bond is identical with a substituent on the other carbon, it will be easy to describ the isomers as cis-trans
Example.
cinnamaldehyde (trans)
Oleic acid (Cis)

192. When the four substituents on the two carbons of the C=C bond are different, cis-trans description become ambiguity.
In such cases we will use E/Z description ( E from German means Entgegen = Opposite, Z means Zusammen = together)
For the assignment of E/Z we use the sequence rules, the isomer having the two atoms or groups with high priority on the same side of C=C bond will be described Z and when they are on opposite sides of the molecule the isomer will be E.
sequence rules:
(1) Rule 1 The atom of higher atomic number getting high priority, if two atoms are isotopes of the same element, the atom of higher mass number has higher priority.

193. Z E E Z e.g the sequence is I > Cl > S > D > H Example1.
1-bromo-1-chloro-2-iodo ethene 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 Z E
Example 2: 1-bromo-2-chloro-1-flouro ethene. 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 E Z

194. Z Example 3: 1-bromo-1-chloro propene.
(2) Rule 2: if the relative priority of two groups can not be decided by rule 1 it shall be determined by a similar comparison of the next atoms in the groups e.g. C2H5 group has higher priority than CH3;
(isopropyl) has higher priority than C2H5 & -CH2Cl
Chloro methyl has higher priority than

195. -C(CH3)3 > -CH(CH3)2 > -CH2CH3
Precedence is determined at the first point of difference: ethyl C2H5 [-C-( C, H, H)] outranks methyl CH3 [-C( H, H, H)] & similarly tert-butyl outranks isopropyl and isopropyl outranks ethyl.
-C(CH3)3 > -CH(CH3)2 > -CH2CH3
-C(C, C, C) > -C (C, C, H) > -C( C, H, H)
Ex.
lower
higher
lower
higher E
Also -CH(CH3)2 outranks -CH2CHOH
[-C-( C, C, H)] outranks [-C( C, H, H)]
Ex.

196. Also –CH2OH [-C-( O, H, H)] outranks –C(CH3)3 [-C( C, C, C)] Ex.
lower
higher
lower
higher E
Also –CH2OH [-C-( O, H, H)] outranks –C(CH3)3 [-C( C, C, C)]
Ex.
higher
higher
lower
lower Z

197. (3) Rule 3: where there is a double or triple bond both atoms are considered to be duplicated or triplicated thus C=A equals
&
equals
e.g.
equals
e.g. for –OH, -CHO, -CH2OH groups the sequence is –OH, CHO, -CH2OH

198. ≡ ≡ Phenyl C6H5- e.g. has higher priority than (isopropyl)
& -CH=CH2 (vinyl group) equals
takes priority over
(isopropyl)

199. outranks an isopropyl group
i.e. –CHO is treated as if it –C( O, O, H) so -CHO, [–C( O, O, H)] outranks -CH2OH [–C( O, O, H)]
Ex. The compound
higher
lower
lower
higher E
Also -CH=CH2 is treated as if it were
A vinyl group –CH=CH2
outranks an isopropyl group

200. Relative stabilities of alkenes:
Ex. The compound
higher
higher
lower
lower Z
Relative stabilities of alkenes:
The heat of combustion of the four isomeric alkenes having the same molecular C4H8 showed that
1-butene
cis-2-butene
trans-2-butene
2-methylpropene
order of decreasing heat of combustion and increasing of stability

201. > > > > > >
Stabilities and degree of substitution of the alkenes:
Stability of alkenes increases with increasing of degree of substitution on the C=C bond
i.e
>
>
>
>
>
>
Stability

202. The degree of substitution in alkenes can extend in cyclic alkenes*
, the ring carbon indicated by an asterisk counter as a unique substituent on the double bond
e.g *
>
>
tetrasubstituted alkene
trisubstituted alkene
disubstituted alkene
stability

203. > > > Steric factors (steric effect): Ex.
* This is because the C=C is electron attracting and will be stabilized by the electron releasing effect of the alkyl substituents.
Steric factors (steric effect):
Bulky substituents attached in a cis configuration to C=C will repel each other as a result of being too Close. In contrast, to same bulky groups will be far a part in the trans configuration. Accordingly cis form is less stable than the trans form

204. Synthesis of alkenes via Elimination Reactions:
Cis isomer
trans isomer
Synthesis of alkenes via Elimination Reactions:
There are three main reactions (Elimination reactions) for the synthesis of alkenes.
(1) Dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halides: α ß

205. (2) Dehydration of alcohols:
(3) Debromination of vic-Dibromides:
Dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halides:
E2 ( Bimolecular elimination Reaction) Beta elimination Reaction.

206. B, the used base (basic catalyst) and may be sodium ethoxide in ethanol (C2H5-ONa / C2H5OH ).
transition state concerted process

207. Or pot. tert. butyloxide in tert
Or pot. tert.butyloxide in tert. Butyl alcohol ((CH3)3COK / (CH3)3COH); Or pot. hydroxide in ethanol ( alcoholic KOH, KOH / C2H5OH) .
* RX should be secondary or tertiary alkyl halide.
* Higher temperature favored E2 reactions.
E2 Reactions: the orientation of the double bond in the product; Zaitsev’s Rule:
E2 occurs to give the most stable, highly substituted alkene.
EX. 1

208. EX. 2
EX. 3
(b)
(a)
2-bromo-2-methylbutane

209. (a) (b) (a) (b) δ δ less stable transition state
resembles a di substituted
alkene
More stable transition state
resembles a tri substituted
alkene
(a)
(b)

210. An Exception to Zaitsev’s Rule:
The use of bulky base such as pot. tert-butoxide / tert-butyl alcohol favors the formation ß ß δ ß ß δ ß

211. ß δ ß ß δ ß
Explain the formation of 4-methylcyclohexene in the dehydrobromination 4-methyl bromocyclohexane of less substituted alkene.

212. Synthesis of alkenes via the dehydration of alcohols (E1):
2-methyl-2-butene
2-methyl-1-butene
Synthesis of alkenes via the dehydration of alcohols (E1):
* Dehydration of alcohols is an elimination and is favored at high temp..
* Acids used may be Bronsted acids such as sulfuric acid and phosphoric acid. Also Lewis acids such as Al2O3 is often used

213. * The Dehydration process is closely related to the structure of alcohols and temp. and the conc. of the used acid.
Ex.1
Ex.2
85%
80%
Ex.3
20%
84%

214. * Thus the relative ease of the dehydration of alcohols can be arranged in the following order.
>
>
* In some case 1ry and secondary (2ry) alcohols undergo rearrangements of their carbon skeleton during dehydration.
Ex.
85%
20%
80%

215. i.e
Is the starting carbon skeleton and
Is the producing carbon skeleton.
Mechanism of alcohol Dehydration E1 (unimolecular elimination) Reaction:
Example the dehydration of tert-butyl alcohol

216. Protonation of alcohol ( alkyloxonium ion formation)
Step 1:
Protonation of alcohol ( alkyloxonium ion formation)
Protonated alcohol
( alkyloxonium ion formation)
Step 2:
carbocation

217. (b) Dehydration of primary Alcohols(E2):
* 1ry carbocation is not stable enough to be formed.
* The acid- catalyzed dehydration of primary alcohols takes place by the following mechanism

218. Step 1:
Step 2:

219. Molecular Rearrangements in alcohols Dehydration (carbocation stability):
It has been found that dehydration of some alcohols afforded alkenes which were different from the expected ones. A rearrangement process was proposed to account for the formation of the unexpected alkenes (methide shift)
Ex.
3,3-dimethyl-2-butanol

220. 2ry carbocation
Methyl shift
- H+
3ry carbocation
- H+
(unexpected)

221. 1,2-hydride shift:
In which a hydride ion H- migrates to an adjacent positively charged carbon. ~
* Hydride ion shift usually takes place during the dehydration of primary alcohols
Ex.

222. 1ry carbocation
- H+ ~H
2ry carbocation
- H+
(unexpected)

223. The following examples illustrated the carbocation rearrangements.~
3ry carbocation
2ry carbocation
Ex.2 ~
Ex.3 ~

224. Ex.4: rearrangements of carbocations can also lead to a change in ring size as the following.
3 ry carbocation

225. Synthesis of Alkenes by the debromination of vicinal dibromides:
geminal dihalide
(agem-dihalide)
Vicinal dihalide
(avic-dihalide)
* vic- dibromides undergo debromination with NaI/acetone or with a mixture of Zn dust/CH3CO2H

226. * The debromination by NaI takes place via E2 mechanism.
Additions to Alkenes:
The addition reactions are the characteristic to the C=C bond with the general type shown below.

227. Ex.
alkyl halide
alkyl hydrogen sulfate
alcohol
dihalide

228. Two characteristics of the double bond addition reactions:
(1) The conversion of one Π bond and one δ into two δ bonds
Π bond
δ bond
2 δ bond
Bonds broken
Bonds formed
(2) The Π electrons are particularly susceptible to the electrophiles
Π bond

229. Ex. HX react with alkenes by donating a proton to the Π bondor
electrophile
nucleophile

230. Addition of hydrogen halides to alkene: Markavikov’s rule
HCl, HBr and HI add to the double bond of alkenes.
* The addition is carried out by dissolving HX in acetic acid or CH2Cl2 or bubbling the HX gas in the alkene and the alkene itself as the solvent.
* The order of the reactivity of HX is HI > HBr > HCl > HF

231. Ex.2
Markovnikov’s rule:
In the addition of HX to an alkene, the hydrogen atom adds to the carbon atom of the double bond that has (already has) the greater number of hydrogen atoms.

232. Ex.1
The mechanism of Markovnikov’s addition:
Step1.
Π complex
step2
δ complex

233. Theoretical Explanation of Markovnikov’s rule:

234. Ex.2

235. Modern statement of Markovnikov’s rule:
In the ionic addition of unsymmetrical reagent to a double bond, the positive portion of the adding reagent attaches itself to a carbon atom of the double bond so as to yield the more stable carbocation as an intermediate.
Example:

236. Addition of sulfuric acid to alkenes:
Example:

237. Alcohols from alkyl hydrogen sulfates:
Addition of water to alkenes: Acid catalyzed hydration.
General equation:
Ex.1
Ex.2

238. The mechanism of the hydration of 2-methylpropene.
Step 1.
Step 2.
Step 3.

239. The reaction produces tert-butyl alcohol because step 1 leads to the formation of the more stable tert-butyl cation rather than the much less stable isobutyl cation.
for all practical purposes this reaction does not take place because it 1ry carbocation.
The rearrangements associated with alkenes hydrations.
3,3-dimethyl-1-butene
2,3-dimethyl-2-butanol

240. The mechanism for the above rearrangements:~

241. Addition of Bromine and Chlorine to Alkenes: The reaction of alkenes with Br2/CCl4 is a useful test for carbon-carbon multiple bonds. Alkenes react rapidly with bromine at room temp. and in the absence of light. If we add Br2 to C=C, the red-bromine disappears.
Thus
Alkene
(colorless)
red-brown
Vic-dibromide
(colorless)
Examples

242. 1) 2) -9 C° - 5C° 3) C° Trans-1,2-dibromo cyclohexane
(as a racemic form)

243. Mechanism of halogen Addition: Π complex formation and δ complex.
Step 1
Π complex
δ complex
Step 2
SN2
Vic-di bromide

244. Stereo chemistry of halogen Addition to alkenes:
The addition of Br2 to alkenes is anti addition. The product is trans in isomer in the cases of cyclic bromonium cation and the anti addition of Br- to that intermediate via SN2 mechanism could be illustrated by the following reaction .
Ex.
cyclopentene
Trans1,2-dibromocyclopentane

245. Mechanism of the reaction:
Π complex
δ complex (bromonium ion)
Trans1,2-dibromocyclopentane

246. Halohydrin formation:
alkene
Vic-dihalide
halhydrin
The mechanism of Halohydrin formation:
Step 1
Π complex
Step 2
δ complex (bromonium ion)

247. Step 3
Example

248. Epoxidation of alkenes:
Epoxides are cyclic ethers with three membered rings.
An epoxide
Ex.
IUPAC name : Oxirane
common name : ethylene oxide
Synthesis of (epoxidation):

249. * The used peracids are peracetic and perbenzoic acids, the mechanism of epoxidation is as shown
* The epoxidation reaction is a syn addition.
Ex.1
Ex.2

250. Acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of epoxide: Ex.
1,2-ethanediol
(ethyleneglycol)
Anti hydroxylation of alkenes:
Ex.

251. Acid catalyzed hydrolysis of cyclopentene oxide yields a trans-diol, trans-1,2-cyclopentanediol.

252. Alcohols from alkenes through Oxymercuration- Demercuration:

253. Oxymercuration- Demercuration is highly regioselectiv
* Oxymercuration- Demercuration is highly regioselectiv. The net orientation of water H- and –OH is in accordance with Markovnikov’s rule.
General example:
Specific example:
Ex.1

254. Ex.2
Alcohols from Alkenes Through Hydroboration-Oxidation:
The addition of the elements of water [ H,OH ] to C=C through the use of diborane (B2H6) or THF:BH3.
The addition of diborane to C=C is hydroboration and the second is oxidation and hydrolysis of organoborn intermediate.
The method gave the alcohols ( Anti- Markovnikov addition of water) which can not prepared through the acid-catalyzed hydration of alkenes or oxymercuration-demercuration

255. Example: H2O / H3O+ 3 mole THF : BH3 hydroboration 3 mole H2O2 / OH-
3 CH3CH2CH2OH
1- propanol

256. Ex.2
Ex.3
Ex.4

257. The stereo chemistry of the oxidation of organoborans:
The oxidation step in the hydroboration-oxidantion synthesis of alcohols takes place with retention of configuration, the hydroxyl replaces the boron atom where it stands in the organoboron compound the net result of the two steps is the syn addition of –H and –OH.
Ex.

258. Radical addition to alkenes:
The Anti Markovnikov addition of HBr:
When alkenes that contained peroxides or hydroperoxides reacted with HBr, Anti-Markovnikov addition of HBr.
HBr
Absence of peroxide

259. Ex.1
The mechanism of anti Markovnikov’s addition:
( HF, HCl, HI do not give anti Markovnikov’s addition) in the presence of ROOR only HBr gives anti Markovinkov’s addition, the mechanism is a readical chain reaction initiated by peroxides: and involves the following steps.
Chain Initiation
Step 1
Step 2

260. Chain propagation
Step 3
Step 4
Reaction termination:

261. Oxidations of alkenes: Syn Hydroxylation
Alkenes undergo the oxidation of C=C bond with KMnO4 or OsO4 to give 1,2-diols (glycols)
Examples
(1)
(2)

262. Syn Hydroxylation of alkenes:
The mechanism for the formation of glycols by KMnO4 and OsO4 involve the formation of cyclic intermediates followed by the cleavage at the oxygen-metal bond to give the syn hydroxylation product.

263. The Syn Hydroxylation can be seen by when cyclopentene reacts with KMnO4 / OH- or OsO4 followed by treatment with NaHSO3 or Na2SO3. The product in either case is cis-1,2-cyclopentanediol.

266. Oxidative cleavage of alkenes:
Hot KMnO4 oxidize alkene to pot. Salts of carboxylic acids.
Ex.
The terminal CH2 group of 1-alkene is oxidized to CO2 and H2O by hot KMnO4. A disubstituted carbon atom of a double bond becomes the C=O group of a ketone
Example:

267. The oxidation cleavage of alkenes has been used to prove the location of the double bond the alkenes chain or ring (via retrosynthetic analysis)
Example:

268. ( either cis or trans 3-octene)
Ozonolysis of alkenes:
A more widely used method for locoing of the double bond of an alkene involves the use of O3 (ozone)
Ozone react with alkenes to form the unstable initial ozonide which rearrange to ozonide. The mechanism of this rearrangement can be depicted as follow

269. Ozones are very unstable and can not isolated but are reduced with Zinc and water. The reduction products are carbonyl compounds

270. The overall process of ozonolysis followed by reduction with Zinc and water accounts to a disconnection of the carbon-carbon double bond in the following fashion
A –H attached to the double bond is not oxidized to –OH as it is with KMnO4
Example:

271. Alkynes
They are hydrocarbons containing -C≡C- (carbon-carbon triple bonds).
* Noncyclic alkynes have the general formula CnH2n-2
* We called R-C≡CH monosubstituted or terminal alkynes,
R-C≡CR’ are called to have internal triple bonds
* R-C≡CH have acidic proton H-C≡C-H acetylene (ethylene) is the simplest alkyne
Sources of Alkynes:
(1) From lime stone and Coke

272. (1) By thermal dehydrogenation of ethylene:
Nomenclature of alkynes:
IUPAC rules for hydrocarbons were followed and alkynes take the suffix yne
Ex. H-C≡C-H (ethyne), CH3C≡CH (propyne), CH3CH2C≡CH (1-butyne), CH3C≡CCH3 (2-butyne), (CH3)3CC≡CCH3 (4,4-dimethyl-2-pentyne).
* -C≡CH is named as ethynyl if it is a substituent
* We can use the older nomenclature as follow
HC≡CH (acetylene), CH3C≡CH ( Methyl acetylene),

273. Acidity of acetylene and terminal alkynes:
Physical properties:
* They are resemble alkanes and alkenes in their physical properties such as low density and low water solubility.
* They are non polar and dissolve in organic solvents such as alkanes
Acidity of acetylene and terminal alkynes:
Alkynes are more acidity than alkenes and alkanes ( Acetylene and terminal alkynes are stronger than other hydrocarbons)
HC≡CH > H2C=CH2 > CH3CH3
pKa Ka
* -OH ion is too weak base to convert acetylene to it’s anion,

274. The position of equilibrium in this equation lies to the left.
Amide ion is a much stronger base than acetylide ion and converts acetylene to it’s conjugate base quantitavely.
Ka = 10-36
pKa = 36
Ka = 10-26
pKa = 26

275. Preparation of Alkynes by the alkylation of acetylene and terminal alkynes:
Alkynes are prepared by combining smaller structural units to build longer carbon chains.
e.g.
Dialkylation of acetylene can be achieved by carrying out the sequence twice

276. Dehalogenation of dihalides:
Alkenes can be converted to alkyne e.g. general equation

277. The geminal dihalides and vicinal dihalides can be dehyrohalogenation two reaction steps.
General equations:
The second dehydrohalogenation step is more difficult than that the first so that rather strongly basic conditions or high temperature are needed to convert dihalides to alkynes

278. Chemical properties of alkynes:
Hydrogenation of alkynes:
(a) Catalytic hydrogenation

279. (b) Metal-Ammonia Reduction of Alkynes:
It gives trans or E alkenes
Addition of hydrogen halides to alkynes:
The addition of HX to alkynes is regioselective and follows
Markovinkov’s rule.
Ex.

280. The reaction mechanism is.
Step 1
Step 2 is bromide ion captures the alkenyl cation
The carbocation formed by addition of a proton to an alkyne is an alkenyl cation. The positively charged carbon of an alkenyl cation is SP hybridized which is more electronegative than its SP2 hybridization count part thus alkenyl is less stable than alkyl carbocation

281. RCH2CH+R’ is more sable than RCH=C+R’
Alkyl cation alkenyl
Positive charge is positive charge is
On SP2hybridized carbon on SP hybridized carbon
* In the presence of excess HX, geminal dihalides are formed
Ex.

282. * Free-radical addition of HBr to alkynes is a regioselectivity oppositey to Markovinkov’s rule is observed
Ex.
Hydration of alkynes:
Addition of the elements of water to the triple bond ( HO- &H+) to yield an enol which converted to the most stable form, the keto form.

283. Addition of halogens to alkynes:

284. A dihaloalkene is an intermediate and is the isolated product when the alkyne and the halogen are present in equimolar amounts. The stereochemistry of addition is anti.
Ozonolysis of Alkynes:
Carboxylic acids are produced when alkynes are subjected to ozonolysis.

285. Ozonolysis is some times used as a tool in structure determination by edifying the carboxylic acid .