1. 2.1b Mechanics On the move Breithaupt pages 112 to 129
April 11th, 2010

2. AQA AS Specification Lessons Topics 1 to 4
Motion along a straight line
Displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration.
v = Δs / Δt and a = Δv / Δt
Representation by graphical methods of uniform and non-uniform acceleration; interpretation of velocity-time and displacement-time graphs for uniform and non uniform acceleration; significance of areas and gradients.
Equations for uniform acceleration;
v = u + at , v2 = u2 + 2as
s = ½ (u + v) t , s = ut + ½ at2
Acceleration due to gravity, g; detailed experimental methods of measuring g are not required.
5 & 6
Projectile motion
Independence of vertical and horizontal motion; problems will be soluble from first principles. The memorising of projectile equations is not required.

3. Distance (x) and Displacement (s)
the length of the path moved by an object
scalar quantity
SI unit: metre (m)
Displacement (s)
the length and direction of the straight line drawn from object’s initial position to its final position
vector quantity

4. Speed (v) average speed = distance change time taken vav = Δx / Δt
scalar quantity
SI unit: ms -1
Instantaneous speed (v) is the rate of change of distance with time: v = dx / dt

5. Velocity (v) average velocity = displacement change time taken
vav = Δs / Δt
vector quantity
direction: same as the displacement change
SI unit: ms -1
Instantaneous velocity (v) is the rate of change of displacement with time: v = ds / dt

6. Speed and Velocity Conversions
1 kilometre per hour (km h-1)
= 1000 m h-1
= 1000 / 3600 ms-1
1 km h-1 = 0.28 ms-1
and 1 ms-1 = 3.6 km h-1
Also:
100 km h-1 = 28 ms-1 = approx 63 m.p.h

7. Complete distance time speed 60 m 3 s 20 ms-1 1400 m 35 s 40 ms-1
80 km
2 h
40 km h-1
150 x 10 6 km
8 min 20 s
3.0 x 108 ms-1
1 km
3.03 s
330 ms-1 20
1400
0.20 40 8 20
3.03

8. Speed and Velocity Question
Two cars (A and B) travel from Chertsey to Weybridge by the routes shown opposite. If both cars take 30 minutes to complete their journeys calculate their individual average speeds and velocities.
car A: distance = 6km
car B: distance = 4km
displacement = 2km EAST
Chertsey
Weybridge

9. Car A Car B speed = 6km / 0.5h = 12km h-1 velocity = 2km EAST / 0.5h
= 4km h-1 EAST
Car B
speed
= 4km / 0.5h
= 8km h-1
velocity
= 2km EAST / 0.5h
= 4km h-1 EAST

10. Acceleration (a) average acceleration = velocity change time taken
aav = Δv / Δt
vector quantity
direction: same as the velocity change
SI unit: ms -2
Instantaneous acceleration (a) is the rate of change of velocity with time: a = dv / dt

11. Notes:
1. Change in velocity:
= final velocity (v) – initial velocity (u)
so: aav = (v – u) / Δt
2. Uniform acceleration:
This is where the acceleration remains constant over a period of time.
3. Deceleration:
This is where the magnitude of the velocity is decreasing with time.

12. Acceleration due to gravity (g)
An example of uniform acceleration.
In equations ‘a’ is substituted by ‘g’
On average at sea level:
g = 9.81 ms-2 downwards
g is often approximated to 10 ms -2
YOU ARE EXPECTED TO USE 9.81 IN EXAMINATIONS!!

13. Question
Calculate the average acceleration of a car that moves from rest (0 ms-1) to 30 ms-1 over a time of 8 seconds.
aav = (v – u) / Δt
= (30 – 0) / 8
average acceleration = 3.75 ms-2

14. Complete Velocity / ms-1 Time / s Acceleration / ms-2 Initial Final 4545 15 3 24 8 30 90 10 6 20 5
- 5
- 60
- 3 45 3 30
- 5
- 60

15. Distance-time graphs The gradient of a distance-time graph is
equal to the speed

16. Displacement-time graphs
The gradient of a displacement-time graph is
equal to the velocity
The graph opposite shows how the displacement of an object thrown upwards varies in time.
Note how the gradient falls from a high positive value to zero (at maximum height) to a large negative value.
Estimate the initial velocity of the object.
Initial gradient = (5 – 0)m / (0.5 – 0)s = 10 ms-1
Initial velocity = 10 ms-1

17. Question
Describe the motion shown by the displacement-time graph below:
s / m
t / s A B C D E
O → A: acceleration from rest
A → B: constant velocity
B → C: deceleration to rest
C → D: rest (no motion)
D → E: acceleration from rest back towards the starting point

18. Velocity-time graphs With velocity-time graphs: gradient
= acceleration
a = (v – u) / t
The area under the ‘curve’
= displacement
s = [u x t] + [½ (v – u) x t]

19. Question 1 Describe the motion shown by the velocity-time graph below:
v / ms-1
t / s A B C D E F v1 v2
O → A: UNIFORM POSITIVE acceleration from rest to velocity v1.
A → B: constant velocity v1.
B → C → D : UNIFORM NEGATIVE acceleration from v1 to negative velocity v2.
At C: The body reverses direction
D → E: constant negative velocity v2.
E → F: NON-UNIFORM POSITIVE acceleration to rest

20. Question 2
v / ms-1
t / s T 12
-10
The graph shows the velocity-time graph of a car. Calculate or state:
(a) the acceleration of the car during the first 4 seconds.
(b) the displacement of the car after 6 seconds.
(c) time T.
(d) the displacement after 11 seconds.
(e) the average velocity of the car over 11 seconds.

21. Question 2 a) the acceleration of the car during the first 4 seconds.
v / ms-1
t / s T 12
-10
a) the acceleration of the car during the first 4 seconds.
acceleration = gradient
= (12 - 0)ms-1 / (4 – 0)s
= 12 / 4
acceleration = 3 ms-2

22. Question 2 (b) the displacement of the car after 6 seconds.
v / ms-1
(b) the displacement of the car after 6 seconds.
displacement = area
= area A + area B
= ½ (12 x 4) + (12 x 2) =
displacement = 48 m 12
area A
area B T
t / s
-10

23. Question 2 (c) time T. By similar triangles: (T - 6):(11 - T) = 12:10
v / ms-1
(c) time T.
By similar triangles:
(T - 6):(11 - T) = 12:10
i.e. (T - 6) / (11 - T) = 12 / 10
(T - 6) / (11 - T) = 1.20
(T - 6) = 1.20 (11 – T)
T - 6 = 13.2 – 1.2T
2.2T = 19.2
T = 19.2 / 2.2
T = 8.73 seconds
Note: T can also be found by scale drawing or by using the equations of uniform acceleration (see later). 12
area A
area B T
t / s
-10

24. Question 2 (d) the displacement after 11 seconds. displacement = area
v / ms-1
(d) the displacement after 11 seconds.
displacement = area
= area A + area B + area C
– area D
= ½ (12 x 2.73)
– ½ (10 x 3.27)
= – 11.35
= 53.03
displacement = 53.0 m 12
area A
area B
area C T
t / s
area D
-10

25. Question 2 (e) the average velocity of the car over 11 seconds.
v / ms-1
t / s T 12
-10
area A B C D
(e) the average velocity of the car over 11 seconds.
average velocity
= displacement / time
= / 11
= 4.82 ms-1

26. Question 3
s / ms-1
t / s T 64 24 48 53
Sketch the displacement-time graph for the car of question 2.
displacement-time
co-ordinates:
t / s
s / m 4 24 6 48
8.73
64.4 11
53.0
t / s
s / m 4 6
8.73 11

27. Question 4
Sketch displacement and velocity time graphs for a bouncing ball.
Take the initial displacement of the ball to be h at time t = 0.
Use the same time axis for both curves and show at least three bounces.
displacement
time h
velocity
gradients = ms-2

28. The equations of uniform acceleration
v = FINAL velocity
u = INITIAL velocity
a = acceleration
t = time for the velocity
change
s = displacement during
the velocity change
v = u + at
v2 = u2 + 2as
s = ½ (u + v) t
s = ut + ½ at2
THESE EQUATIONS ONLY APPLY WHEN THE ACCELERATION REMAINS CONSTANT

29. Question 1 v = u + at v = 3 + (2 x 5)
Calculate the final velocity of a car that accelerates at 2ms -2 from an initial velocity of 3ms -1 for 5 seconds.
v = u + at
v = 3 + (2 x 5) =
final velocity = 13 ms-1

30. Question 2
Calculate the stopping distance of a car that is decelerated at 2.5 ms -2 from an initial velocity of 20 ms -1.
v2 = u2 + 2as
0 = (2 x x s)
0 = s
- 400 = - 5s
- 400 / - 5 = s
stopping distance = 80 m

31. Question 3 s = ut + ½ at2 s = (0 x 1.5) + ½ (9.81 x (1.5)2)
A stone is dropped from the edge of a cliff. If it accelerates downwards at 9.81 ms -2 and reaches the bottom after 1.5s calculate the height of the cliff.
s = ut + ½ at2
s = (0 x 1.5) + ½ (9.81 x (1.5)2)
s = ½ (9.81 x 2.25)
cliff height = 11.0 m

32. Question 4
Calculate the time taken for a car to accelerate uniformly from 5 ms -1 to 12 ms -1 over a distance of 30m.
s = ½ (u + v) t
30 = ½ (5 + 12) x t
30 = 8.5 x t
30 ÷ 8.5 = t
time = 3.53 s

33. Question 5
A ball is thrown upwards against gravity with an initial speed of 8 ms -1. What is the maximum height reached by the ball?
v2 = u2 + 2as
where:
s = height upwards
u = 8 ms -1 upwards
v = 0 ms -1 (at maximum height)
a = ms -2 (acceleration is downwards)

34. Question 5 continued v2 = u2 + 2as 0 = (8)2 + 2 (-9.81 x s)
maximum ball height = m

35. Calculate the ? quantities
u / ms-1
v / ms-1
a / ms-2
t / s
s / m 2 14
0.75 ?
0.4 15 16
- 8 4 6 20 16 45 16 4

36. Calculate the other quantities
u / ms-1
v / ms-1
a / ms-2
t / s
s / m 2 14
0.75 16
128 6
0.4 15 45
- 8 4
0.5 20
128 6 2
0.5

37. Projectile motion
This is where a body is moving in two dimensions. For example a stone being thrown across a stretch of water has both horizontal and vertical motion.
The motion of the body in two such mutually perpendicular directions can be treated independently.

38. Example 1
A stone is thrown horizontally at a speed of 8.0 ms-1 from the top of a vertical cliff.
If the stone falls vertically by 30m calculate the time taken for the stone to reach the bottom of the cliff and the horizontal distance travelled by the stone (called the ‘range’).
Neglect the effect of air resistance.
height of fall
path of stone
range

39. Example 1 Stage 1 Consider vertical motion only s = ut + ½ at2
30 = (0 x t) + ½ (9.81 x (t)2)
30 = ½ (9.81 x (t)2)
30 = x t2
t2 = 6.116
time of fall = 2.47 s
height of fall
path of stone
range

40. Example 1 Stage 2 Consider horizontal motion only
During the time 2.47 seconds the stone moves horizontally at a constant speed of 8.0 ms-1
speed = distance / time
becomes:
distance = speed x time
= 8.0 x 2.47
= 19.8
range = 19.8 m
height of fall
path of stone
range

41. Further Questions
(a) Repeat this example this time for a cliff of height 40m with a stone thrown horizontally at 20 ms-1.
time of fall = 2.83 s
range = 56.6 m
(b) How would these values be changed if air resistance was significant?
time of fall - longer
range - smaller
height of fall
path of stone
range

42. Example 2
A shell is fired at 200 ms-1 at an angle of 30 degrees to the horizontal. Neglecting air resistance calculate:
(a) the maximum height reached by the shell
(b) the time of flight
(c) the range
path of shell
range
maximum height
30°

43. Example 2 Stage 1 - Part (a) Consider vertical motion only
At the maximum height, s
The final VERTICAL velocity, v = 0.
v2 = u2 + 2as
0 = (200 sin 30°)2 + (2 x x s) [upwards +ve]
0 = (200 x 0.500)2 + ( x s)
0 = (100)2 + ( x s)
0 = s
= s
s = / 19.62
s = 509.7
maximum height = 510 m

44. Example 2 Stage 2 – Part (b) Consider vertical motion only v = u + at
0 = (200 sin 30°) + ( x t)
0 = t
-100 = t
t = 100 / 9.81
t = 10.19
Time to reach maximum height = s
If air resistance can be neglected then this is also the time for the shell to fall to the ground again.
Hence time of flight = 2 x 10.19
time of flight = 20.4 seconds

45. Example 2 Stage 3 – Part (c) Consider horizontal motion only
During the time seconds the shell moves horizontally at a constant speed of (200 cos 30°) ms-1
speed = distance / time
becomes:
distance = speed x time
= (200 cos 30°) x 20.38
= (200 x ) x 20.38
= x 20.38
= 3530
range = 3530 m (3.53 km)

46. Question Repeat example 2 this time for a firing angle of 45°.
sin 45° = ; 200 x sin 45° = 141.4
maximum height = 1020 m
time of flight = 28.8 s
range = 4072 m (4.07 km)
Note: 45° yields the maximum range in this situation.
path of shell
range
maximum height
45°

47. Internet Links Two dogs running with graphs- NTNU
The Moving Man - PhET - Learn about position, velocity, and acceleration graphs. Move the little man back and forth with the mouse and plot his motion. Set the position, velocity, or acceleration and let the simulation move the man for you.
Maze Game - PhET - Learn about position, velocity, and acceleration in the "Arena of Pain". Use the green arrow to move the ball. Add more walls to the arena to make the game more difficult. Try to make a goal as fast as you can.
Motion in 2D - PhET - Learn about velocity and acceleration vectors. Move the ball with the mouse or let the simulation move the ball in four types of motion (2 types of linear, simple harmonic, circle). See the velocity and acceleration vectors change as the ball moves.
Motion with constant acceleration - Fendt
Bouncing ball with motion graphs - netfirms
Displacement-time graph with set velocities - NTNU
Displacement & Aceleration-time graphs with set velocities - NTNU
Displacement & Velocity-time graphs with set accelerations - NTNU
Football distance-time graphs - eChalk
Motion graphs with tiger- NTNU
Two dogs running with graphs- NTNU
Motion graphs test - NTNU
BBC KS3 Bitesize Revision: Speed - includes formula triangle applet
Projectile Motion - PhET- Blast a Buick out of a cannon! Learn about projectile motion by firing various objects. Set the angle, initial speed, and mass. Add air resistance. Make a game out of this simulation by trying to hit a target.
Projectile motion - with or without air drag - NTNU
Projectile motion - NTNU
Projectile motion x- with variable height of projection - netfirms
Projectile Motion - Fendt
Projectile motion - Virgina
Golf stroke projectile challenge - Explore Science
Shoot the monkey - Explore Science
Canon & target projectile challenge- Sean Russell
Slug projectile motion game - 7stones
Bombs released from an aeroplane- NTNU

48. Core Notes from Breithaupt pages 112 to 129
Define what is meant by: (a) displacement; (b) speed & (c) velocity.
Explain the difference between speed and velocity.
Define what is meant by acceleration.
What is the difference between UNIFORM and NON-UNIFORM acceleration? Illustrate your answer with sketch graphs.
State the equations of constant acceleration. Explain what each of the five symbols used means.
What is meant by ‘free fall’?
What is the average value of the acceleration of free fall near the Earth’s surface?
What information is given by the gradients of (a) distance-time; (b) displacement-time; & (c) velocity-time graphs?
What information is given by the area under the curves of (a) speed-time & (b) velocity-time graphs?
List and explain the three principles applying to the motion of all projectiles.
Repeat the worked example on page 127 this time with the object projected horizontally at a speed of 20 ms-1 from the top of a tower of height 40 m.

49. Notes from Breithaupt pages 112 & 113
Define what is meant by: (a) displacement; (b) speed & (c) velocity.
Explain the difference between speed and velocity.
A ball is thrown vertically upwards and then caught when it falls down again. Sketch distance-time and displacement-time graphs of the ball’s motion and explain why these graphs are different from each other.
Try the summary questions on page 113

50. Notes from Breithaupt pages 114 & 115
Define what is meant by acceleration.
What is the difference between UNIFORM and NON-UNIFORM acceleration? Illustrate your answer with sketch graphs.
Repeat the worked example on page 115 this time with the vehicle moving initially at 12 ms-1 applying its brakes for 20s.
Try the summary questions on page 115

51. Notes from Breithaupt pages 116 to 118
State the equations of constant acceleration. Explain what each of the five symbols used means.
Show how the four equations of constant acceleration can be derived from the basic definitions of average speed and acceleration.
Repeat the worked example on page 117 this time with the vehicle moving initially at 40 ms-1 applying its brakes over a distance of 80m.
Try the summary questions on page 118

52. Notes from Breithaupt pages 119 to 121
What is meant by ‘free fall’?
What is the average value of the acceleration of free fall near the Earth’s surface?
Describe a method of finding the acceleration due to gravity in the laboratory.
Repeat the worked example on page 121 this time with the coin taking 1.2s to reach the bottom of the well.
Try the summary questions on page 121

53. Notes from Breithaupt pages 122 & 123
What information is given by the gradients of (a) distance-time; (b) displacement-time; & (c) velocity-time graphs?
What information is given by the area under the curves of (a) speed-time & (b) velocity-time graphs?
Use figures 1 & 2 to explain the differences between distance & displacement-time graphs.
Repeat the worked example on page 123 this time for a ball released from 2.0 m rebounding to 1.2 m.
Try the summary questions on page 123

54. Notes from Breithaupt pages 124 & 125
Repeat the worked example on page 124 this time with the vehicle moving initially at ms-1, 40m from the docking station. Also the motors only stay on 3 seconds longer this time.
Repeat the worked example on page 125 this time with the ball being released 0.75 m above the bed of sand creating an impression 0.030m in the sand.
Try the summary questions on page 125

55. Notes from Breithaupt pages 126 & 127
List and explain the three principles applying to the motion of all projectiles.
Repeat the worked example on page 127 this time with the object projected horizontally at a speed of 20 ms-1 from the top of a tower of height 40 m.
Derive expressions for the x and y co-ordinates of a body at time t after it has been projected horizontally with speed U.
Try the summary questions on page 127

56. Notes from Breithaupt pages 128 & 129
Try the summary questions on page 129