1. Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY (6th Ed)
Chapter 1
Thinking Critically with Psychological Science
James A. McCubbin, PhD
Clemson University
Worth Publishers
“What good fortune for those in power that people do not think.”

2. Thinking Critically with Psychological Science
Critical Thinking
Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions
examines assumptions
discerns hidden values
evaluates evidence

3. Limits of Intuition and Common Sense
Hindsight Bias (20/20 hindsight vision)
tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon
Overconfidence
we tend to think we know more than we do (more confident than correct)

4. History is Living Proof
“We don’t like their sound. Groups of guitars are on there way out.” Decca Records, 1962, Beatles Recording Contract
“Computers in the future may weigh no more than 1.5 tons.” Popular Mechanics, 1949
“The telephone may be appropriate for our American cousins, but not here, because we have an adequate supply of message boys.” British expert group evaluating the telephone

5. The Scientific Attitude
Curiosity– a passion to explore and understand without misleading or being mislead
Skeptical, but not cynical (open, but not gullible
Willing to question any truth claim, asking for clarity in definition, consistency in logic, adequacy of evidence “Paul Kurtz”
Humility– ability to reject one’s own ideas
Smart Thinking=Critical Thinking

6. Research Strategies Theory Hypothesis
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations
Hypothesis
a testable prediction
often implied by a theory

7. The Scientific Method theories lead to generate or refine research and
observations
lead to
hypothesis
theories

8. Research Strategies Operational Definition
a statement of procedures (operations) used to define research variables
Example-
intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures

9. Research Strategies Replication Case Study
repeating the essence of a research study to see whether the basic finding generalizes to other subjects and circumstances
usually with different subjects in different situations
Case Study
an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

10. Research Strategies Survey False Consensus Effect
technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people
usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them
False Consensus Effect
tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

11. Research Strategies Population Random Sample
all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study
Random Sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

12. Research Strategies
If marbles of two colors are mixed well in the large jar, the fastest way to know their ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller one and count them

13. Research Strategies Naturalistic Observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

14. (positive or negative)
Research Strategies
Correlation Coefficient
a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and thus how well either factor predicts the other
Indicates direction
of relationship
(positive or negative)
Correlation
coefficient
r = +.37
Indicates strength
of relationship
(0.00 to 1.00)

15. Research Strategies Scatterplot
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables
the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship
the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation
little scatter indicates high correlation
also called a scattergram or scatter diagram

16. Research Strategies Perfect positive correlation (+1.00)
No relationship (0.00)
Perfect negative
correlation (-1.00)

17. Research Strategies Scatterplot of Height and Temperament 9590 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25
Temperament
scores
Height in inches
Scatterplot of Height and Temperament

18. Height and Temperament of 20 Men
Research Strategies
Height and Temperament of 20 Men 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 80 63 61 79 74 69 62 75 77 60 64 76 71 66 73 70 68 90 42 81 39 48 72 57 30 84
Subject
Height in
Inches
Temperament

19. Research Strategies Three Possible Cause-Effect Relationships or or
could cause
(1)
Low self-esteem
Depression or
(2)
Depression
could cause
Low self-esteem or
Low self-esteem
(3)
Distressing events
or biological
predisposition
could cause
and
Depression

20. Illusory Correlation Illusory Correlation
the perception of a relationship where none exists
Conceive
Do not conceive
Adopt
Do not
adopt
disconfirming
evidence
confirming

21. Random Sequences
Your chances of being dealt either of these hands is precisely the same: 1 in 2,598,960.

22. Research Strategies Experiment
the investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe their effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable) while controlling other relevant factors by random assignment of subjects
by random assignment of participants the experiment controls other relevant factors

23. Research Strategies Double-blind Procedure Placebo
both the subject and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the subject has received the treatment or a placebo
commonly used in drug-evaluation studies
Placebo
an inert substance or condition that may be administered instead of a presumed active agent, such as a drug, to see if it triggers the effects believed to characterize the active agent

24. Research Strategies Experimental Condition Control Condition
the condition of an experiment that exposes subjects to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
Control Condition
the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental treatment
serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

25. Research Strategies Random Assignment
assigning subjects to experimental and control conditions by chance
minimizes pre-existing differences between those assigned to the different groups

26. Research Strategies Independent Variable Dependent Variable
the experimental factor that is manipulated
the variable whose effect is being studied
Dependent Variable
the experimental factor that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
in psychology it is usually a behavior or mental process

27. Research Strategies Comparing Research Methods
Research Method Basic Purpose How Conducted What is
Manipulated
Descriptive To observe and Case studies, surveys, Nothing
record behavior and naturalistic
observations
Correlational To detect naturally Computing statistical Nothing
occuring relationships; association, sometimes
to assess how well among survey
one variable predicts responses
Experimental To explore cause Manipulating one or Independent
and effect more factors and using variable(s)
random assignment
to eliminate preexisting
differences among
subjects

28. Research Strategies Design of the subliminal tapes experiment
Subliminal tape content
Self-esteem
Memory
Tape label
Design of the subliminal tapes experiment

29. Statistical Reasoning
Our Brand Brand Brand
Brand X Y Z
100% 99 98 97 96 95
Percentage
still functioning
after 10 years
Brand of truck

30. Statistical Reasoning
Our Brand Brand Brand
Brand X Y Z
100% 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
Percentage
still functioning
after 10 years
Brand of truck

31. Statistical Reasoning
Mode
the most frequently occurring score in a distribution
Mean
the arithmetic average of a distribution
obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
Median
the middle score in a distribution
half the scores are above it and half are below it

32. Statistical Reasoning
A Skewed Distribution 90
475
710 70
Mode Median Mean
One Family
Income per family in thousands of dollars

33. Statistical Reasoning
Range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
Standard Deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean
Statistical Significance
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

34. Does Behavior Depend on One’s Culture?
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next