1. The Evolution of Populations

2. Variations Genetic Variations Differences in individuals based on DNA or genes For example different hair color through DNA differences Geographic Variations Differences in individuals based on separations between two groups For example, variations in beak size of birds based on the resources available in the geographic area Genetic Variations Differences in individuals based on DNA or genes For example different hair color through DNA differences Geographic Variations Differences in individuals based on separations between two groups For example, variations in beak size of birds based on the resources available in the geographic area

3. Population requirements Populations Same species Live in the same area Interbreed producing fertile offspring Populations are determined by their gene pool - the imaginary pool that consists of all copies of every type of allele at every locus Populations Same species Live in the same area Interbreed producing fertile offspring Populations are determined by their gene pool - the imaginary pool that consists of all copies of every type of allele at every locus

4. Hardy-Weinberg Principle It makes many assumptions Mating is random No migration in or out of populations No gene flow No mutations No natural selection Infinite population It makes many assumptions Mating is random No migration in or out of populations No gene flow No mutations No natural selection Infinite population

5. Hardy-Weinberg Math p = frequency of dominant allele q = frequency of recessive allele p 2 = frequency of homozygous dominant alleles q 2 = frequency of homozygous recessive alleles 2pq = frequency of heterozygous alleles p = frequency of dominant allele q = frequency of recessive allele p 2 = frequency of homozygous dominant alleles q 2 = frequency of homozygous recessive alleles 2pq = frequency of heterozygous alleles

6. Hardy-Weinberg Equation p 2 + 2pq + q 2 = 1 p 2 + 2pq + q 2 = 1 Expected frequency of homozygous dominant alleles Expected frequency of heterozygous alleles Expected frequency of homozygous recessive alleles

7. Genetic Drift Genetic Drift is the chance events can cause allele frequencies to fluctuate unpredictably from generation to generation Founder Effect Bottleneck Effect Genetic Drift is the chance events can cause allele frequencies to fluctuate unpredictably from generation to generation Founder Effect Bottleneck Effect

8. Founder Effect A few members of a larger population become isolated This group then establishes a new population whose gene pool differs from that of the source A few members of a larger population become isolated This group then establishes a new population whose gene pool differs from that of the source

9. Founder Effect Example The Dutch population moving from their homeland of the Netherlands to South Africa, creating a small population In this population today, the rate of Huntingtons Disease is extremely high This is because a few people out of the small amount of original settlers had the disease, thus there was a higher chance for people to inherit it than in the large population Therefore, more people have the disease The Dutch population moving from their homeland of the Netherlands to South Africa, creating a small population In this population today, the rate of Huntingtons Disease is extremely high This is because a few people out of the small amount of original settlers had the disease, thus there was a higher chance for people to inherit it than in the large population Therefore, more people have the disease

10. Bottleneck Effect A natural disaster causes a large reduction in population size The surviving population by chance has a different allele frequency than the large population and thus, the gene pool is changed A natural disaster causes a large reduction in population size The surviving population by chance has a different allele frequency than the large population and thus, the gene pool is changed

11. Bottleneck Effect Example The Northern Elephant Seal was nearly completely annihilated in the late 19 th century through people hunting it for its blubber. Because of this, the Northern Elephant Seal does not have the same variations in the gene pool the Southern Elephant Seals do The Northern Elephant Seals are smaller than the Southern The Northern Elephant Seals have longer trunks The Northern Elephant Seal was nearly completely annihilated in the late 19 th century through people hunting it for its blubber. Because of this, the Northern Elephant Seal does not have the same variations in the gene pool the Southern Elephant Seals do The Northern Elephant Seals are smaller than the Southern The Northern Elephant Seals have longer trunks Northern Southern

12. Early Earth Described as being a hot thin soup Everything lived in the water which was made of amino acids, lipids, sugars and nitrogenous bases These are theorized to have come from comets that hit Earth and underwater volcanoes Described as being a hot thin soup Everything lived in the water which was made of amino acids, lipids, sugars and nitrogenous bases These are theorized to have come from comets that hit Earth and underwater volcanoes

13. Earth Timeline First prokaryotes (single celled) First eukaryotes (single celled) First multi-celled prokaryotes First land animals and plants 3,500 2,100 1,200 500 Numbers are in millions of years ago

14. Descent with Modification: Darwinian View of Life

15. Darwins Theory of Evolution New species evolve from old species Populations undergo genetic changes over time Driven by natural selection Organisms that have a particular trait that allows them to survive in their environment are more likely to reproduce and pass the trait onto the next generation Every living organism shares a common ancestor New species evolve from old species Populations undergo genetic changes over time Driven by natural selection Organisms that have a particular trait that allows them to survive in their environment are more likely to reproduce and pass the trait onto the next generation Every living organism shares a common ancestor

16. Darwins Theory of Evolution continued Four requirements for theory to be true More offspring are produced then can survive Must be competition for resources in environment Must be genetic variation in population Some genetic combinations must give an advantage in survival Four requirements for theory to be true More offspring are produced then can survive Must be competition for resources in environment Must be genetic variation in population Some genetic combinations must give an advantage in survival

17. Natural Selection Darwin believed in survival of the fittest This means that organisms most suited to their environment, not necessarily the strongest, would survive to reproduce According to Darwins theory, success is measured by reproductive accomplishment (having babies) Darwin believed in survival of the fittest This means that organisms most suited to their environment, not necessarily the strongest, would survive to reproduce According to Darwins theory, success is measured by reproductive accomplishment (having babies)

18. Two Evolutionary Theories Punctuated Equilibrium - Species stay relatively similar for long periods of time (thousands of years) followed by rapid genetic change, forming new species Thought to be response to dramatic changes in environment Punctuated Equilibrium - Species stay relatively similar for long periods of time (thousands of years) followed by rapid genetic change, forming new species Thought to be response to dramatic changes in environment

19. Two Evolutionary Theories continued Gradualism - Species change very slowly over time, until they obtain sufficient changes to be called an independent species

20. Two Evolutionary Theories continued

21. Evidence for Natural Selection Fossil Record Much of the evidence for Natural Selection is found in similarities in fossils Comparative anatomy Homologous Structures: Come from same embryological tissue (hands and wings, similar bone structure + DNA similarities) Analogous Structures: Similar purpose, different origin (Bat and Bee wings, both used to fly but few similarities in DNA) Vestigial Organs Remnants of features no longer used in an organism (Tailbone in humans, leg stubs in whale, etc) No other explanation for their presence other then evolution Fossil Record Much of the evidence for Natural Selection is found in similarities in fossils Comparative anatomy Homologous Structures: Come from same embryological tissue (hands and wings, similar bone structure + DNA similarities) Analogous Structures: Similar purpose, different origin (Bat and Bee wings, both used to fly but few similarities in DNA) Vestigial Organs Remnants of features no longer used in an organism (Tailbone in humans, leg stubs in whale, etc) No other explanation for their presence other then evolution

22. Types of Selection Directional Selection - Selection favors one phenotype and causes a shift toward an extreme Example - If a certain coloration provides rats with good camouflage to hide from predators, more organisms with that coloration would survive and reproduce Directional Selection - Selection favors one phenotype and causes a shift toward an extreme Example - If a certain coloration provides rats with good camouflage to hide from predators, more organisms with that coloration would survive and reproduce

23. Types of Selection cont. Stabilizing Selection - Average phenotype is favored, extremes selected against Example - If the color of the rocks in which rats hide is a dull gray, and the average rat coloration is gray, any differently colored rats will stand out to predators and be less likely to survive Stabilizing Selection - Average phenotype is favored, extremes selected against Example - If the color of the rocks in which rats hide is a dull gray, and the average rat coloration is gray, any differently colored rats will stand out to predators and be less likely to survive

24. Types of Selection cont. Disruptive Selection - Extremes are favored and average is selected against Example - If rats hide in light and dark colored rocks, any intermediately colored rats will be easily targeted and the extremes will be more likely to reproduce Disruptive Selection - Extremes are favored and average is selected against Example - If rats hide in light and dark colored rocks, any intermediately colored rats will be easily targeted and the extremes will be more likely to reproduce

25. Species and Speciation Species - a group of potentially, breeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other groups Speciation - Emergence of a new species Species - a group of potentially, breeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other groups Speciation - Emergence of a new species

26. Phyletic Speciation Phyletic Speciation - Slow changes occur over thousands of years until enough changes have been acquired for the new species to be reproductively isolated from the mother species Species A -> A 1 -> A 2 ->…A 20 One would never find A x living at the same time as species A, the original species will turn into the new species Phyletic Speciation - Slow changes occur over thousands of years until enough changes have been acquired for the new species to be reproductively isolated from the mother species Species A -> A 1 -> A 2 ->…A 20 One would never find A x living at the same time as species A, the original species will turn into the new species

27. Divergent Speciation Divergent Speciation - Species will branch off origin species to create new species Mother species and offshoot species can exist at the same time Wolves gave rise to dogs, but wolves still exist Divergent Speciation - Species will branch off origin species to create new species Mother species and offshoot species can exist at the same time Wolves gave rise to dogs, but wolves still exist

28. Types of Divergent Speciation Allopatric speciation - Most common type of Divergent speciation, deals with actually physical separation Geographic Barriers - 2 populations evolve differently Natural disasters - drive populations away to new environments Adaptive radiation - Spread of population into new environment with lany new evolutionary adaptations, normally forms many new species Character displacement - If competition with other species, organisms evolve exaggerated differences between species Because natural selection favors species that can find unoccupied niche in environment Allopatric speciation - Most common type of Divergent speciation, deals with actually physical separation Geographic Barriers - 2 populations evolve differently Natural disasters - drive populations away to new environments Adaptive radiation - Spread of population into new environment with lany new evolutionary adaptations, normally forms many new species Character displacement - If competition with other species, organisms evolve exaggerated differences between species Because natural selection favors species that can find unoccupied niche in environment

29. Types of Divergent Speciation Sympatric speciation - New species forms while still with old species geographically More common with plants Happens most easily with hybridization - mating 2 species Usually doesnt work because the mismatch of homologous chromosomes Plants avoid this with polyploidy - Doubles each chromosome during mitosis -> instant homologous chromosomes Sympatric speciation - New species forms while still with old species geographically More common with plants Happens most easily with hybridization - mating 2 species Usually doesnt work because the mismatch of homologous chromosomes Plants avoid this with polyploidy - Doubles each chromosome during mitosis -> instant homologous chromosomes

30. Allopatric vs Divergent Speciation

31. Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms Prezygotic - Occurs before fertilization Different mating rituals Different mating seasons Different lock and key Prezygotic - Occurs before fertilization Different mating rituals Different mating seasons Different lock and key

32. Mating Ritual Video http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ACTwv x_STK4&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ACTwv x_STK4&feature=related When you finish watching this video do not quit safari, instead just click back to the PowerPoint http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ACTwv x_STK4&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ACTwv x_STK4&feature=related When you finish watching this video do not quit safari, instead just click back to the PowerPoint

33. Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms Postzygotic - Occurs after fertilization Embryo will most likely not survive, or if born will be weak or infertile, because chromosome mismatch Mules are examples of infertile survivors of postzygotic reproductive isolation Postzygotic - Occurs after fertilization Embryo will most likely not survive, or if born will be weak or infertile, because chromosome mismatch Mules are examples of infertile survivors of postzygotic reproductive isolation

34. Evolutionary Trends Divergent Evolution - Separation of related species Adapt to differences in environments Divergent Evolution - Separation of related species Adapt to differences in environments

35. Evolutionary Trends Convergent Evolution - Different unrelated species evolve into similar organisms Again, to adapt to environment, (ex. Whales and Fish) but different Convergent Evolution - Different unrelated species evolve into similar organisms Again, to adapt to environment, (ex. Whales and Fish) but different

36. Evolutionary Trends Coevolution - Two species evolve together and affect each other Example: Bees pollinate flowers and spread their seeds Coevolution - Two species evolve together and affect each other Example: Bees pollinate flowers and spread their seeds

37. 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