1. VIRTUAL MEMORY MANAGEMENT
UNIT – IV
VIRTUAL MEMORY MANAGEMENT
Handled by
K. Venkatesh & Razia Sultana

2. Virtual Memory Background Demand Paging Performance of Demand Paging
Page Replacement
Page-Replacement Algorithms
Allocation of Frames
Thrashing

3. Background
Virtual memory – separation of user logical memory from physical memory.
Only part of the program needs to be in memory for execution.
Logical address space can therefore be much larger than physical address space.
Need to allow pages to be swapped in and out.
Virtual memory can be implemented via:
Demand paging
Demand segmentation

4. Demand Paging Bring a page into memory only when it is needed.
Less I/O needed
Less memory needed
Faster response
More users
Page is needed  reference to it
invalid reference  abort
not-in-memory  bring to memory

5. Valid-Invalid Bit
With each page table entry a valid–invalid bit is associated (1  in-memory, 0  not-in-memory)
Initially valid–invalid but is set to 0 on all entries.
Example of a page table snapshot.
During address translation, if valid–invalid bit in page table entry is 0  page fault.
Frame #
valid-invalid bit 1 1 1 1 
page table

6. Page Fault
If there is ever a reference to a page, first reference will trap to OS  page fault
OS looks at another table to decide:
Invalid reference  abort.
Just not in memory.
Get empty frame.
Swap page into frame.
Reset tables, validation bit = 1.
Restart instruction: Least Recently Used
block move
auto increment/decrement location

7. What happens if no frame is free?
Page replacement – find some page in memory, but not really in use, swap it out.
algorithm
performance – want an algorithm which will result in minimum number of page faults.
Same page may be brought into memory several times.

8. Performance of Demand Paging
Page Fault Rate 0  p  1.0
if p = 0 no page faults
if p = 1, every reference is a fault
Effective Access Time (EAT)
EAT = (1 – p) x memory access
+ p (page fault overhead
+ [swap page out ]
+ swap page in
+ restart overhead)

9. Demand Paging Example Memory access time = 1 microsecond
50% of the time the page that is being replaced has been modified and therefore needs to be swapped out.
Swap Page Time = 10 msec = 10,000 msec
EAT = (1 – p) x 1 + p (15000)
P (in msec)

10. Page Replacement
Prevent over-allocation of memory by modifying page-fault service routine to include page replacement.
Use modify (dirty) bit to reduce overhead of page transfers – only modified pages are written to disk.
Page replacement completes separation between logical memory and physical memory – large virtual memory can be provided on a smaller physical memory.

11. Page-Replacement Algorithms
Want lowest page-fault rate.
Evaluate algorithm by running it on a particular string of memory references (reference string) and computing the number of page faults on that string.
In all our examples, the reference string is
1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.

12. First-In-First-Out (FIFO) Algorithm
Reference string: 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
3 frames (3 pages can be in memory at a time per process)
4 frames
FIFO Replacement – Belady’s Anomaly
more frames  less page faults 1 1 4 5 2 2 1 3
9 page faults 3 3 2 4 1 1 5 4 2 2 1 5
10 page faults 3 3 2 4 4 3

13. Optimal Algorithm 1 4 2 6 page faults 3 4 5
Replace page that will not be used for longest period of time.
4 frames example
1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
How do you know this?
Used for measuring how well your algorithm performs. 1 4 2
6 page faults 3 4 5

14. Least Recently Used (LRU) Algorithm
Reference string: 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Counter implementation
Every page entry has a counter; every time page is referenced through this entry, copy the clock into the counter.
When a page needs to be changed, look at the counters to determine which are to change. 1 5 2 3 5 4 4 3

15. LRU Algorithm (Cont.)
Stack implementation – keep a stack of page numbers in a double link form:
Page referenced:
move it to the top
requires 6 pointers to be changed
No search for replacement

16. LRU Approximation Algorithms
Reference bit
With each page associate a bit, initially -= 0
When page is referenced bit set to 1.
Replace the one which is 0 (if one exists). We do not know the order, however.
Second chance
Need reference bit.
Clock replacement.
If page to be replaced (in clock order) has reference bit = 1. then:
set reference bit 0.
leave page in memory.
replace next page (in clock order), subject to same rules.

17. Counting Algorithms
Keep a counter of the number of references that have been made to each page.
LFU Algorithm: replaces page with smallest count.
MFU Algorithm: based on the argument that the page with the smallest count was probably just brought in and has yet to be used.

18. Allocation of Frames Each process needs minimum number of pages.
Example: IBM 370 – 6 pages to handle SS MOVE instruction:
instruction is 6 bytes, might span 2 pages.
2 pages to handle from.
2 pages to handle to.
Two major allocation schemes.
fixed allocation
priority allocation

19. Fixed Allocation
Equal allocation – e.g., if 100 frames and 5 processes, give each 20 pages.
Proportional allocation – Allocate according to the size of process.

20. Priority Allocation
Use a proportional allocation scheme using priorities rather than size.
If process Pi generates a page fault,
select for replacement one of its frames.
select for replacement a frame from a process with lower priority number.

21. Global vs. Local Allocation
Global replacement – process selects a replacement frame from the set of all frames; one process can take a frame from another.
Local replacement – each process selects from only its own set of allocated frames.

22. Thrashing
If a process does not have “enough” pages, the page-fault rate is very high. This leads to:
low CPU utilization.
operating system thinks that it needs to increase the degree of multiprogramming.
another process added to the system.
Thrashing  a process is busy swapping pages in and out.

23. Thrashing Diagram Why does paging work? Locality model
Process migrates from one locality to another.
Localities may overlap.
Why does thrashing occur?  size of locality > total memory size

24. Working-Set Model
  working-set window  a fixed number of page references Example: 10,000 instruction
WSSi (working set of Process Pi) = total number of pages referenced in the most recent  (varies in time)
if  too small will not encompass entire locality.
if  too large will encompass several localities.
if  =   will encompass entire program.
D =  WSSi  total demand frames
if D > m  Thrashing
Policy if D > m, then suspend one of the processes.

25. Keeping Track of the Working Set
Approximate with interval timer + a reference bit
Example:  = 10,000
Timer interrupts after every 5000 time units.
Keep in memory 2 bits for each page.
Whenever a timer interrupts copy and sets the values of all reference bits to 0.
If one of the bits in memory = 1  page in working set.
Why is this not completely accurate?
Improvement = 10 bits and interrupt every 1000 time units.

26. Page-Fault Frequency Scheme
Establish “acceptable” page-fault rate.
If actual rate too low, process loses frame.
If actual rate too high, process gains frame.

27. Other Considerations Preparing Page size selection fragmentation
table size
I/O overhead
locality

28. Other Consideration (Cont.)
Program structure
Array A[1024, 1024] of integer
Each row is stored in one page
One frame
Program 1 for j := 1 to 1024 do for i := 1 to 1024 do A[i,j] := 0; 1024 x 1024 page faults
Program 2 for i := 1 to 1024 do for j := 1 to 1024 do A[i,j] := 0; 1024 page faults
I/O interlock and addressing

29. Demand Segmentation
Used when insufficient hardware to implement demand paging.
OS/2 allocates memory in segments, which it keeps track of through segment descriptors
Segment descriptor contains a valid bit to indicate whether the segment is currently in memory.
If segment is in main memory, access continues,
If not in memory, segment fault.

30. File-System Interface
File Concept
Access Methods
Directory Structure
Protection
Consistency Semantics

31. File Concept Contiguous logical address space Types: Data Program
numeric
character
binary
Program

32. File Structure None - sequence of words, bytes Simple record structure
Lines
Fixed length
Variable length
Complex Structures
Formatted document
Relocatable load file
Can simulate last two with first method by inserting appropriate control characters.
Who decides:
Operating system
Program

33. File Attributes Name – only information kept in human-readable form.
Type – needed for systems that support different types.
Location – pointer to file location on device.
Size – current file size.
Protection – controls who can do reading, writing, executing.
Time, date, and user identification – data for protection, security, and usage monitoring.
Information about files are kept in the directory structure, which is maintained on the disk.

34. File Operations create write read reposition within file – file seek
delete
truncate
open(Fi) – search the directory structure on disk for entry Fi, and move the content of entry to memory.
close (Fi) – move the content of entry Fi in memory to directory structure on disk.

35. File Types – name, extension

36. Access Methods Sequential Access read next write next reset
no read after last write
(rewrite)
Direct Access
read n
write n
position to n
rewrite n
n = relative block number

37. Directory Structure Directory Files F 4 F 1 F 2 F 3 F n
A collection of nodes containing information about all files.
Directory
Files
F 1
F 2
F 3
F 4
F n
Both the directory structure and the files reside on disk.
Backups of these two structures are kept on tapes.

38. Information in a Device Directory
Name
Type
Address
Current length
Maximum length
Date last accessed (for archival)
Date last updated (for dump)
Owner ID (who pays)
Protection information (discuss later)

39. Operations Performed on Directory
Search for a file
Create a file
Delete a file
List a directory
Rename a file
Traverse the file system

40. Organize the Directory (Logically) to Obtain
Efficiency – locating a file quickly.
Naming – convenient to users.
Two users can have same name for different files.
The same file can have several different names.
Grouping – logical grouping of files by properties, (e.g., all Pascal programs, all games, …)

41. Single-Level Directory
A single directory for all users.
Naming problem
Grouping problem

42. Two-Level Directory Separate directory for each user. Path name
Can have the saem file name for different user
Efficient searching
No grouping capability

43. Tree-Structured Directories

44. Tree-Structured Directories (Cont.)
Efficient searching
Grouping Capability
Current directory (working directory)
cd /spell/mail/prog
type list

45. Tree-Structured Directories (Cont.)
Absolute or relative path name
Creating a new file is done in current directory.
Delete a file
rm <file-name>
Creating a new subdirectory is done in current directory.
mkdir <dir-name>
Example: if in current directory /spell/mail
mkdir count
mail
prog
copy
prt
exp
count
Deleting “mail”  deleting the entire subtree rooted by “mail”.

46. Acyclic-Graph Directories
Have shared subdirectories and files.

47. Acyclic-Graph Directories (Cont.)
Two different names (aliasing)
If dict deletes list  dangling pointer.
Solutions:
Backpointers, so we can delete all pointers. Variable size records a problem.
Backpointers using a daisy chain organization.
Entry-hold-count solution.

48. General Graph Directory

49. General Graph Directory (Cont.)
How do we guarantee no cycles?
Allow only links to file not subdirectories.
Garbage collection.
Every time a new link is added use a cycle detection algorithm to determine whether it is OK.

50. Protection File owner/creator should be able to control:
what can be done
by whom
Types of access
Read
Write
Execute
Append
Delete
List

51. Lets test … Define virtual memory? Define demand paging?
Differentiate demand paging from pure demand paging?
How is the effective access time calculated?
What are memory mapped files
What is victim frame?
What is the use of modify bit?
What is frame allocation algorithm?
What is the disadvantage of FIFO page replacement algorithm?
Define optimal page replacement algorithm
What are the types of LRU approximation page replacement algorithm?
What are four possible cases in enhanced second chance algorithm?
Name the types of counting based page replacement algorithm?
Define thrashing?
Name the file attributes?
What operations can be implemented on files?
Differentiate single level directory from two level directory?
Define mount point?
Define controlled access?
What is ACL?
Differentiate absolute path name and relative path name?

52. Reference: 1. “Operating System Concepts” by Abraham Silberschatz, Peter Baer Galvin and Greg Gagne, Sixth Edition, John Wiley & Sons (ASIA) Pvt. Ltd, 2003.