1. CHAPTER 8 INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
BASIC CHEMISTRY
CHM 138
CHAPTER 8 INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

2. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY Organic chemistry:
The branch of chemistry that deals with carbons compounds.
‘Organic’ – derived from living organisms
Study of compounds extracted from living organisms and their natural products.
Examples: sugar, starch, urea, waxes, carbohydrates, fats and etc
Human are composed of organic molecules – proteins in skin, lipid in cell membranes, glycogen in livers and the DNA in the nuclei of cells.

3. Chemistry of carbon:
- Two stable isotops (13C and 12C)
- electron configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p2
- four valence electrons
- can form more compounds than any other element
- able to form single, double and triple carbon-carbon bonds, and to link up with each other in chains and ring structures

4. HOMOLOGUE SERIES AND FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
A group of atoms that is largely responsible for the chemical behavior of the parent molecule.
Functional groups:
- hydrocarbons
- alcohols
- aldehydes
- ketones
- carboxylic acids
- alkyl halides

5. HYDROCARBONS
Made up of only hydrogen and carbon

6. ALKANES General formula: CnH2n+2, where n = 1, 2, ….
Only single covalent bonds are present
Known as saturated hydrocarbons because contain the maximum number of hydrogen atoms that can bond with the number of carbon atoms present.
Can be assumed to be sp3-hydridized

7. Structures of the first four alkanes

8. The melting and boiling points of the straight-chain isomers of the first 10 alkanes

9. Homologous Series 
Definition: A series of compounds in which each member differs from the next by a specific number and kind of atoms.
Alkanes: Differ only at number of (CH2)
Series of compounds that has the same functional group.

10. INITIAL NAMES OF THE HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
Number of carbon atoms, n
Name 1
Meth 2
Eth 3
Prop 4
But 5
Pent 6
Hex 7
Hept 8
Oct 9
Non 10
Dec

11. NAMING ALKANES Alkyl groups are used to name organic compounds.
The general formula of an alkyl group is CnH2n+1.
The letter “R” is often used in formulas to represent any of the possible alkyl groups.
R= CnH2n+1 (any alkyl group)
R = CH3 — methyl group
R = CH3CH2 — ethyl group

13. IUPAC RULES International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
RULE 1. Select the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms as the parent compound.
Consider all alkyl groups attached to it as branch chains or substituents that have replaced hydrogen atoms of the parent hydrocarbon. If two chains of equal length are found, use the chain that has the larger number of substituents attached to it.
The alkane’s name consists of the parent compound’s name prefixed by the names of the alkyl groups attached to it.

14. This structure has 2 chains.
This chain has 6 carbon atoms. 1 2 3 4 5 6
This chain has 4 carbon atoms. 1 2 3 4

15. 1 2 3 4 5 6 This is the longest continuous chain.
Select this chain as the parent compound. 1 2 3 4 5 6

16. 1 2 3 4 5 6
This is a methyl group.
It is a branch chain and can be considered to have replaced a hydrogen on the parent compound.

17. The name of the compound is 3-methylhexane.1 2 3 4 5 6

18. IUPAC RULES
RULE 2. Number the carbon atoms in the parent carbon chain starting from the end closest to the first carbon atom that has an alkyl group substituted for a hydrogen atom.
If the first subsitutent from each end is on the same-numbered carbon, go to the next substituent to determine which end of the the chain to start numbering.

19. If the chain is numbered left to right, the isopropyl group is on carbon 5.1 2 5 3 7 8 6 4
isopropyl group

20. If the chain is numbered right to left, the isopropyl group is on carbon 4.
Use right to left numbering so that the isopropyl group is on the lowest numbered carbon.
4-isopropyloctane 8 7 4 6 2 1 3 5
isopropyl group

21. 5 4 2 1 3 2-isopropyl pentane IUPAC RULES
RULE 3. Name each alkyl group and designate its position on the parent carbon chain by a number (e.g., 2-methyl means group attached to C-2). 5 4 2 1 3
2-isopropyl pentane

22. The methyl group appears twice
RULE 4. When the same alkyl-group branch chain appears more than once, indicate this repetition by a prefix (di-, tri-, tetra- and so forth) written in front of the alkyl group name (e.g. dimethyl indicates two methyl groups).
–The numbers indicating the alkyl-group positions are separated by a command and followed by a hyphen and are placed in front of the name (e.g., 2,3-dimethyl). 5 4 2 1 3
The methyl group appears twice
2,3-dimethylpentane

23. RULE 5. When several different alkyl groups are attached to the parent compound, list them in alphabetical order (e.g. ethyl before methyl in 3-ethyl-4-methyloctane). Prefixes are not included in alphabetical ordering (ethyl comes before dimethyl).

24. 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 6 7 8
methyl
ethyl
3-ethyl-4-methyloctane

25. Alkanes can have many different types of substituents.
For example:

26. CYCLIC HYDROCARBONS
A hydrocarbon that contains carbon atoms joined to form a ring.
Cycloalkanes – all carbons of the ring are saturated

27. NOMENCLATURE OF CYCLOALKANES
Similar to that alkanes. For examples:

28. Three isomers of pentane (C5H12)
ISOMERISATION
Structural isomers:
Molecules that have the same molecular formula, but different structure
Three isomers of pentane (C5H12)

29. STRUCTURE ISOMERS FOR ALKANES
NAME
MOLECULAR FORMULA
TOTAL OF ISOMERS
Methane
CH4 1
Ethane
C2H6
Propane
C3H8
Butane
C4H10 2
Pentane
C5H12 3
Hexane
C6H14 5
Heptane
C7H16 9
Octane
C8H18 18
Nonane
C9H20 35
Decane
C10H22 75

30. ALKENES Also called olefins
Contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond (C=C)
General formula, CnH2n (n=2,3,…)
Classified as unsaturated hydrocarbons (compound with double or triple carbon-carbon bonds that enable them to add hydrogen atoms.
sp2-hybridized
For example:
C2H4 - ethylene

32. ALKYNES Alkynes contain at least carbon-carbon triple bond.
General formula: CnH2n-2, where n = 2, 3,….
Alkyne nomenclature:
Used suffix –yne
Same as alkene nomenclature

33. Naming Alkenes and Alkynes

34. This chain contains 6 carbon atoms
IUPAC RULES
RULE 1. Select the longest continuous carbon chain that contains a double or triple bond.
This chain contains 6 carbon atoms

35. This chain contains 8 carbon atoms
RULE 2. Name this compound as you would an alkane, but change –ane to –ene for an alkene and to –yne for an alkyne.
This chain contains 8 carbon atoms
Name the parent compound octene.
This is the longest continuous chain. Select it as the parent compound.

36. This chain contains a triple bond. Name the parent compound octyne.
RULE 2. Name this compound as you would an alkane, but change –ane to –ene for an alkene and to –yne for an alkyne.
This chain contains a triple bond. Name the parent compound octyne.

37. RULE 3. Number the carbon chain of the parent compound starting with the end nearer to the double or triple bond. Use the smaller of the two numbers on the double- or triple-bonded carbon to indicate the position of the double or triple bond. Place this number in front of the alkene or alkyne name.

38. IUPAC RULES
This end of the chain is closest to the double bond. Begin numbering here.

39. IUPAC RULES The name of the parent compound is 1-octene. 4 3 2 1 5 6 78

40. IUPAC RULES The name of the parent compound is 1-octyne. 8 7 4 3 2 1 65

41. RULE 4. Branched chains and other groups are treated as in naming alkanes. Name the substituent group, and designate its position on the parent chain with a number.

42. IUPAC RULES This is an ethyl group.
The ethyl group is attached to carbon 4. 4 8 7 4 3 2 1 6 5
4-ethyl-1-octene

43. IUPAC RULES 7 4 3 2 1 6 5 8 The ethyl group is attached to carbon 4.
4-ethyl-1-octyne

44. must specify whether the molecule is cis or trans (geometric isomer)
cis – two particular atoms (or groups of atoms) are adjacent to each other
trans – the two atoms (or groups of atoms) are across from each other

45. CYCLOALKENES Contains C=C in the ring Nomenclature of cycloalkenes:
Similar to that alkenes
Carbons atoms in the double bond are designated C1 and C2

46. AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS
Contain one or more benzene rings
Benzene Kekulé Structure
6 carbons in a ring
3 double bonds

47. The structure of benzene can be represented in two abbreviated ways.
The corner of each hexagon represents a carbon and a hydrogen atom.

48. Naming Aromatic Compounds

49. A substituted benzene is derived by replacing one or more of benzene’s hydrogen atoms with an atom or group of atoms.
A monosubstituted benzene has the formula C6H5G where G is the group that replaces a hydrogen atom.
All hydrogens in benzene are equivalent.
It does not matter which hydrogen is replaced by G.

50. Monosubstituted Benzenes

51. The name is written as one word.
Some monosubstituted benzenes are named by adding the name of the substituent group as a prefix to the word benzene.
The name is written as one word.
nitro group
ethyl group
nitrobenzene
ethylbenzene

52. phenol toluene Certain monosubstituted benzenes have special names.
These are parent names for further substituted compounds.
hydroxy group
methyl group
phenol
toluene

53. carboxyl group
amino group
benzoic acid
aniline

54. C6H5— is the phenyl group.
It is used to name compounds that cannot be easily named as benzene derivatives.
diphenylmethane
4-phenyl-2-pentene

55. Disubstituted Benzenes

56. Three isomers are possible when two substituents replace hydrogen in a benzene molecule.
The prefixes ortho-, meta- and para- (o-, m- and p-) are used to name these disubstituted benzenes.

57. ortho disubstituted benzene
substituents on adjacent carbons
ortho-dichlorobenzene (1,2-dichlorobenzene) mp –17.2oC, bp 180.4oC

58. meta disubstituted benzene
substituents on adjacent carbons
meta-dichlorobenzene (1,3-dichlorobenzene) mp –24.82oC, bp 172oC

59. para disubstituted benzene
substituents are on opposite sides of the benzene ring
para-dichlorobenzene (1,4-dichlorobenzene) mp 53.1, bp 174.4oC

60. When one substituent corresponds to a monosubstituted benzene with a special name, the monosubstituted compound becomes the parent name for the disubstituted compound.
m-nitrophenol
phenol

61. m-nitrotoluene toluene
When one substituent corresponds to a monosubstituted benzene with a special name, the monosubstituted compound becomes the parent name for the disubstituted compound.
m-nitrotoluene
toluene

62. Tri- and Polysubstituted Benzenes

63. When a benzene ring has three or more substituents, the carbon atoms in the ring are numbered.
Numbering starts at one of the substituent groups.
The numbering direction can be clockwise or counterclockwise.
Numbering must be in the direction that gives the substituent groups the lowest numbers.

64. 6-chloro clockwise numbering 1-chloro 4-chloro 1,4,6-trichlorobenzene5 1 4 2 3
1,4,6-trichlorobenzene

65. counterclockwise numbering
4-chloro
1-chloro
2-chloro
counterclockwise numbering
chlorine substituents have lower numbers 2 3 1 4 6 5
1,2,4-trichlorobenzene

66. When a compound is named as a derivative of the special parent compound, the substituent of the parent compound is considered to be C-1 of the ring.

67. 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT)5 1 6 3 4 2 1 6 2 5 3
2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) 4
toluene

68. ALCOHOLS
Alcohols: Organic compounds containing hydroxyl (-OH) functional groups.
Phenols: Compounds with hydroxyl group bonded directly to an aromatic (benzene) ring.

69. CLASSIFICATION
According to the type of carbinol carbon atom (C bonded to the –OH group).
Classes:
i) Primary alcohol
- -OH group attached to a primary carbon atom
ii) Secondary alcohol
- -OH group attached to a secondary carbon atom
iii) Tertiary alcohol
- -OH group attached to a tertiary carbon atom

70. TYPE STRUCTURE EXAMPLES
Primary (1°)
Secondary (2°)
Tertiary (3°)

71. Polyhydroxy Alcohols
Alcohols that contain more than one OH group attached to different carbons are called polyhydroxy alcohols.
Monohydroxy: one OH group per molecule.
Dihydroxy: two OH groups per molecule.
Trihydroxy: three OH groups per molecule.

73. Naming Alcohols

74. IUPAC RULES
Select the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms containing the hydroxyl group.
Number the carbon atoms in this chain so that the one bonded to the –OH group has the lowest possible number.
Form the parent alcohol name by replacing the final –e of the corresponding alkane name by –ol. When isomers are possible, locate the position of the –OH by placing the number (hyphenated) of the carbon atom to which the –OH is bonded immediately before the parent alcohol name.
Name each alkyl branch chain (or other group) and designate its position by number.

75. This is the longest continuous chain that contains an hydroxy group.
Select this chain as the parent compound.

76. 4 3 2 1
This end of the chain is closest to the OH. Begin numbering here.

77. 4 3 2 1
3-methyl-2-butanol

78. This is the longest continuous chain that contains an hydroxy group.
Select this chain as the parent compound.

79. 5 4 3 2 1
This end of the chain is closest to the OH. Begin numbering here.

80. 5 4 3 3 2 2 1
3-methyl-2-pentanol

81. EXAMPLE 1) Longest carbon chain = 4 carbons = root name: butanol
2) Position of –OH group = second carbon atom
= 2-butanol
3) Name of substituents = 1-bromo
= 3-methyl
COMPLETE IUPAC NAME = 1-bromo-3,3-dimethyl-2-butanol

82. EXAMPLES OF POLYHYDROXY ALCOHOL

83. Ethers An ether has the formula ROR´.
R and R´ can be the same or different groups.
R and R´ can be saturated, unsaturated or aromatic.
Saturated ethers have little chemical reactivity but are often used as solvents.

84. Alcohols and ethers are isomeric.
They have the same molecular formula but different structural formulas.
An alcohol and its isomeric ether have different chemical and physical properties.

85. CH3CH2OH
ethanol B.P. 78.3oC hydrogen bonds soluble in water
C2H6O
CH3–O–CH3
dimethyl ether B.P. –27.3oC does not hydrogen bond insoluble in water
C2H6O

86. Naming Ethers

87. Common Names CH3CH2CH2 — O — CH2CH3 propyl ether ethyl
Common names of ethers are formed from the names of the groups attached to the carbon atom in alphabetical order followed by the word ether.
CH3CH2CH2 — O — CH2CH3
propyl
ether
ethyl
ethyl propyl ether

88. IUPAC RULES RO– is an alkoxy group.
Ethers are named as alkoxy derivatives of the longest carbon-carbon chain in the molecule

89. IUPAC RULES
Select the longest carbon-carbon chain and label it with the name of the corresponding alkane.
Change the –yl ending of the other hydrocarbon group to –oxy to obtain the alkoxy group name.
Combine the names from steps 1 and 2, giving the alkoxy name first, to form the ether name.

90. This is the longest carbon-carbon chain.
Change the name of the other hydrocarbon group to –oxy.
Label it with the name of the corresponding alkane.
CH3CH2CH2 — O — CH2CH3
ethoxy
propane
ethyl
IUPAC name: ethoxypropane
Trivial name: ethyl propyl ether

91. ALDEHYDES AND KETONES Functional group: carbonyl group
Aldehyde: one hydrogen atom is bonded to the carbon in the carbonyl group.
Ketone: the carbon atom in the carbonyl group is bonded to two hydrocarbon groups.

92. Naming Aldehydes

93. The IUPAC names of aldehydes are obtained by dropping the –e and adding -al to the name of the parent hydrocarbon.
butane al
butanal

94. The parent hydrocarbon is the longest chain that carries the –CHO group.
This chain has 4 carbon atoms. 3 2 1 4

95. The parent hydrocarbon is the longest chain that carries the –CHO group.
This chain has 5 carbon atoms. 5 4 3 2 1

96. 1
The –CHO group is always at the beginning of the carbon chain. The carbonyl carbon is numbered as carbon 1. 5 4 3 2
3-methylpentanal

97. The common names of aldehydes are derived from the common names of the carboxylic acids.
The –ic acid or –oic acid ending of the acid name is dropped and is replaced with the suffix –aldehyde.
butyric acid
butyraldehyde

98. Naming Ketones

99. The IUPAC name of a ketone is derived from the name of the alkane corresponding to the longest carbon chain that contains the ketone-carbonyl group.
The parent name is formed by changing the –e ending of the alkane to -one.
propane
one
propanone

100. If the carbon chain is longer than 4 carbons, it’s numbered so that the carbonyl carbon has the smallest number possible, and this number is prefixed to the name of the ketone.
This end of the chain is closest to the C=O. Begin numbering here.

101. 1 2 3 4 5 6
3-hexanone

102. ethyl propyl ketone ethyl propyl
The common names of ketones are derived by naming the alkyl or aryl groups attached to the carbonyl carbon followed by the word ketone.
ethyl
propyl
ethyl propyl ketone

103. ALKYL HALIDES
General formula: CnH2n+1X where n = 1,2,… and X (halogen)
Functional group: halogen, -X (X = F, Cl, Br, I)
Naming alkyl halides:
- same as nomenclature of alkanes

104. AMINES
Amines are organic compounds and functional groups that contain a basic nitrogen atom with a lone pair
Functional group:
Classification of amines:
Primary amine
Secondary amine
Tertiary amine
                              

105. Primary (1o) amine: one hydrogen of ammonia is replaced by an alkyl or aryl group
Secondary (2o) amine: two hydrogens of ammonia is replaced by an alkyl or aryl group
Tertiary (3o) amine: three hydrogens of ammonia is replaced by an alkyl or aryl group
Quaternary (4o) amine: an ion in which nitrogen is bonded to four alkyl or aryl groups and bears a positive charge

106. NAMING AMINES Common names:
- formed from the names of the alkyl groups bonded to nitrogen, followed by the suffix –amine.
- the prefixes di-, tri-, and tetra- are used to decribe two, three or four identical substituents.

107. NAMING AMINES IUPAC names: - similar to that alcohols.
- the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms determine the root name.
- the –e in alkane name is changed to –amine, and a number shows the position of the amino group along the chain.
- other substituents on the carbon chain are given numbers, and the prefix N- is used for each substituent on nitrogen.

108. CARBOXYLIC ACIDS The carboxyl group can also be written as or
Functional group: carboxyl group, -COOH
The carboxyl group can also be written as or

109. 3 2 1 Open-chain carboxylic acids form a homologous series.
The carbonyl group ( ) is always at the beginning of a carbon chain.
The carbonyl carbon atom is always designated as C-1. 3 2 1

110. methane oic acid methanone
The IUPAC name of a carboxylic acid is derived from the name of the alkane corresponding to the longest carbon chain that contains the carboxyl group.
The parent name is formed by changing the –e ending of the alkane to –oic acid.
methane
oic acid
methanone

111. Examples of carboxylic acid

112. acetic acid common name ethanoic acid formic acid common name
Organic acids are usually known by common names.
These names usually refer to a natural source of the acid.
acetic acid
common name
ethanoic acid
formic acid
common name
methanoic acid
IUPAC name
IUPAC name

114. CARBOXYLIC ACID DERIVATIVES
Group replacing the –OH group of RCOOH
Class of compound
General formula
Example
-X (halogen)
Acyl halide
-OR’
Ester
-NH2
Amide
Acid anhydride

115. Esters

116. OR´ bonded to a carbonyl carbon.
An ester is an organic compound derived from a carboxylic acid and an alcohol.
carbonyl group
OR´ bonded to a carbonyl carbon.
The ester functional group is –
COOR.

117. Esterification is the reaction of an acid and an alcohol to form an ester.
acetic acid (ethanoic acid)
ethyl alcohol (ethanol)
ethyl acetate (ethyl ethanoate)

118. IUPAC NAME
According to the IUPAC system the alcohol part of the ester (R΄) is named first.
ethyl

119. IUPAC NAME
This is followed by the name of the acid where the –ic ending of the acid has been changed to –ate.
ethanoate

120. IUPAC NAME ethyl ethanoate
According to the IUPAC system the alcohol part of the ester (R΄) is named first.
This is followed by the name of the acid where the –ic ending of the acid has been changed to –ate.
ethyl ethanoate

121. acetic acid → acetate ethyl COMMON NAME
The alcohol part is named first (derived from the common names of alcohol).
The common names of esters are derived by adding –ate to the name of the acid.
acetic acid →
acetate
ethyl

122. ethyl acetate COMMON NAME
The alcohol part is named first (derived from the common names of alcohol).
The common names of esters are derived by adding –ate to the name of the acid.
ethyl acetate

124. Amide Amide: a composite of a carboxylic acid and ammonia or an amine.
Classification of amide:
i) primary amide: RCONH2 (two H atoms bonded to N atom)
ii) secondary amide: RCONHR’ (one H atoms
bonded to N atom)
iii) tertiary amide: RCONR’R” (no H atoms bonded to N atom)

125. NAMING AMIDE IUPAC name: i) primary amide
- first name the corresponding acid. Drop the –ic acid or oic acid, and add the suffix –amide.
ammonia
IUPAC name
ethanoic acid
ethanamide
Common name
acetic acid
acetamide

126. NAMING AMIDE IUPAC name: i) secondary and tertiary amide
- treat the alkyl groups on nitrogen as substituents, and specify their position by the prefix N-.

127. Acyl halide / acid halides
Naming acid halides:
- replacing the –ic acid suffix of the acid name with –yl and the halide name.

128. Acid anhydride Naming acid anhydride:
- the word acid is changed to anhydride in both the common and the IUPAC name

129. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

130. POLYMERS
A polymer is a high molar mass molecular compound made up of many repeating chemical units.
Naturally occurring polymers
Proteins
Nucleic acids
Cellulose
Rubber
Synthetic polymers
Nylon
Dacron
Lucite

131. The simple repeating unit of a polymer is the monomer.
Homopolymer is a polymer made up of only one type of monomer
( CF2 CF2 )n
Teflon
( CH2 CH2 )n
Polyethylene
( CH2 CH )n Cl
PVC

132. Copolymer is a polymer made up of two or more monomers
( CH CH2 CH2 CH CH CH2 )n
Styrene-butadiene rubber

133. Formation of Polyethylene
ethylene monomer
nCH2=CH2 →
CH2 CH2[CH2 CH2]n CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3
n = the number of monomer units.
n ranges from 2,500 to 25,000

134. SOME MONOMERS AND THEIR COMMON SYNTHETIC POLYMERS

135. USES AND IMPORTANCE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
NYLON
Nylons are condensation copolymers formed by reacting equal parts of a diamine and a dicarboxylic acids, so that peptide bonds form at both ends of each monomer in a process analogous to polypeptides biopolymers.
General reactions:
Nylon
Dicarboxylic acids
Diamines

136. Basic concepts of nylon production
The first approach:
combining molecules with an acid (COOH) group on each end are reacted with two chemicals that contain amine (NH2) groups on each end.
Form nylon 6,6, made of hexamethylene diamine with six carbon atoms and acidipic acid, as well as six carbon atoms.
The second approach:
a compound has an acid at one end and an amine at the other and is polymerized to form a chain with repeating units of (-NH-[CH2]n-CO-)x.
Form nylon 6, made from a single six-carbon substance called caprolactam.

137. Uses and important of nylon
Apparel: Blouses, dresses, foundation garments, hosiery, lingerie, raincoats, ski apparel, windbreakers, swimwear, and cycle wear
Home Furnishings: Bedspreads, carpets, curtains, upholstery
Industrial and Other Uses: Tire cord, hoses, conveyer and seat belts, parachutes, racket strings, ropes and nets, sleeping bags, tarpaulins, tents, thread, monofilament fishing line, dental floss

138. AZO-DYES Azo compounds:
- compounds bearing the functional group R-N=N-R',
in which R and R' can be either aryl or alkyl.
- N=N group is called an azo group
- HNNH is called diimide
Aryl azo compounds have vivid colors, especially
reds, oranges, and yellows
Yellow azo dye

139. Uses and important of azo dye
Methyl orange - used as acid-base indicators due to the different colors of their acid and salt forms
Artist’s paints – clays, yellow to red range
Dye in food and textiles

140. EXAMPLES OF AZO DYES USED IN FOOD
E102: Tartrazine
                                    
E107 : Yellow 2G
                                                               
E110 : Sunset Yellow
                                      
E122 : Azorubine
EXAMPLES OF AZO DYES USED IN FOOD

141. E123 : Amaranth
                                      
E124 : Ponceau 4R
                              
E129 : Allura Red
                           
E151 : Brilliant Black
                                                        

142. FUEL
Any material that is burned or altered to obtain energy and to heat or to move an object
Its energy can be stored to be released only when needed, and that the release is controlled in such a way that the energy can be harnessed to produce work
Examples: Methane, petrol and oil.
Application of energy released from fuels:
- cooking
- powering weapons to combustion
- generation of electricity
Fuel oil: generate heat or used in an engine for the generation of power