1. Brown Bag #3 Return of the C++

2. Topics  Common C++ “Gotchas”  Polymorphism  Best Practices  Useful Titbits

3. Common C++ “Gotchas”  Circular dependencies  Slicing  Rule of Three

4. Circular Dependencies  Problem:  Two classes that depend on each other  Can’t use #include in both headers // file: A.h #include “B.h” class A { B _b; }; // file: B.h #include "A.h” class B { A _a; }; // file: A.h class B; class A { B& _b; }; // file: B.h class A; class B { A& _a; };  Solution:  Use forward declarations!  Use (smart) pointers / references for members  Limit includes in headers (helps compilation)

5. Rule of Three  If you define one of these, define all three:  Destructor  Copy constructor  Assignment operator MyClass& MyClass::operator= (const MyClass& other) { if (this != &other) { // Do stuff } return *this; }  Otherwise implicitly generated  Latter 2 copy all class members  Copies pointers not objects  Want move/swap semantics?  Call base version from derived classes  Rule of Two: RAII destructors

6. Slicing  Problem:  Loss of derived class functionality  Occurs when derived class copied into base class  Especially when passing by value void Foo( BaseClass baseParam );... DerivedClass myDerived; Foo( myDerived );  Solution:  Pass by reference or pointer!  Avoid concrete base classes

7. Polymorphism  ‘virtual’  Implicit Override  Explicit Override  ‘final’  Abstract Classes  Interfaces  Multiple Inheritance  Virtual Class Inheritance

8. ‘virtual’  Used to declare virtual functions.  Virtual functions can have functionality overwritten in child classes. class Animal { virtual int GetNumLegs(); }; class Dog : public Animal { virtual int GetNumLegs(); }; class Octopus : public Animal { virtual int GetNumLegs(); }; int Animal::GetNumLegs() { return 0; } int Dog::GetNumLegs() { return 4; } int Octopus::GetNumLegs() { return 8; }

9. Implicit Override  C++ traditionally does not require use of the ‘override’ keyword. class Parent { virtual void Foo(int i); }; class Child : public Parent { virtual void Foo(float i); };  Child::Foo does not override Parent::Foo as they have different signatures.  Compiler will not raise an error over this – this is valid declaration.

10. Explicit Override  C++11 introduces the ‘override’ keyword to ensure virtual functions are overwritten. class Parent { virtual void Foo(int i); }; class Child : public Parent { virtual void Foo(float i) override; };  If the base class does not contain a virtual function with the same signature, the compiler will throw an error.  Useful to ensure functions are overwritten correctly.

11. ‘final’  C++11 also introduces the ‘final’ keyword.  This ensures that a virtual function cannot be overwritten in child classes. class Parent { virtual void Foo() final; }; class Child : public Parent { virtual void Foo() override; };  Attempting to override a virtual function declared as final will cause the compiler to throw an error.

12. Abstract Classes  An abstract class is one which you cannot instantiate.  Contains virtual function(s) which must be overwritten in the child class.  A class is abstract if it contains at least pure virtual function. class Parent { virtual void Foo() = 0; }; class Child : public Parent { virtual void Foo(); }; Parent parentObject; // ERROR Child childObject; // OK

13. Interfaces  Similar to an abstract class whose functions are all pure virtual.  Defines certain functionality that a class must implement.  Implementation of functions is individual to each class. __interface IDancer { void Dance(); }; class Fireman : public IDancer { virtual void Dance(); }; class Butcher : public IDancer { virtual void Dance(); };

14. Interfaces (cont.)  Objects that implement an interface can be cast to their interface type.  Allows for easy communication between otherwise unrelated object types.  Easier manipulation of objects. std::vector dancers; Fireman fireman; Butcher butcher; dancers.push_back(fireman); dancers.push_back(butcher); std::for_each(dancers.begin(), dancers.end(), [](IDancer dancer) { dancer.Dance(); });

15. Multiple Inheritance  Consider the following example: Animal Mammal WingedAnimal Bat class Animal { virtual void Eat(); }; class Mammal : public Animal { … }; class WingedAnimal : public Animal { … }; class Bat : public Mammal, public WingedAnimal { … };

16. Multiple Inheritance (cont).  If we call Bat::Eat(), which function do we call?  It is an ambiguous function call.  This is because we have two Animal base classes.  Static cast to Animal is also ambiguous.

17. Virtual Class Inheritance  We can use the ‘virtual’ keyword when inheriting from a class: class Animal { virtual void Eat(); }; class Mammal : public virtual Animal { … }; class WingedAnimal : public virtual Animal { … }; class Bat : public Mammal, public WingedAnimal { … };

18. Virtual Class Inheritance (cont.)  The ‘virtual’ keyword will ensure that when a Bat object is created, the Animal instance used by Mammal and WingedAnimal will be the same.  This will remove any ambiguity from calls to Bat::Eat().  Will also allow direct casting of Bat to Animal.

19. Best Practices  Const WTF  Const FTW  Preprocessor FTL  Enums FTW

20. Const WTF 1. const Thing* a = new Thing(); 2. Thing const * b = new Thing(); 3. Thing* const c = new Thing(); 4. const Thing* const d = new Thing(); 1. Pointer to constant object-Pointer cannot change object 2. Same as 1. 3. Constant pointer to object-Pointer itself cannot change 4. All the const-Neither pointe or pointed can change

21. Const FTW  Prefer pass-by-reference-to-const to pass-by-value (item #20)  Avoids unnecessary constructors/destructor calls  Still guarantee to caller that object won’t be changed void Foo( const Thing& input ); void Foo( Thing const & input ); Thing GetData() const;  const member functions (getters) void Foo( Thing input );

22. Preprocessor FTL  Avoid #define literals  Not type-safe  Not scoped  Use initialized constant instead #define SuperImportant = 42; const int SuperImportant = 42;  Avoid #define pseudo-functions  Look like function calls, aren’t  Same type/scope problems  Use initialized constant instead #define MAX(a, b) ((a < b) ? b : a); inline int MAX(int a, int b) { return (a < b) ? b : a; }

23. Enums FTW struct MyEnum { enum Enum { MAX }; enum class MyEnum { MAX };  Nicer and safer than preprocessor definitions  Enum classes/structs (C++ 11)  Old: Wrap Enums in struct  Now type-safe in C++ 11

24. Useful Titbits  Type Inference  Range-Based For Loop  Singleton Design Pattern  Treat Warnings as Errors  Visual Assist X

25. Type Inference (decltype)  C++11 introduces ‘decltype’ which can be used to infer the type of an object based on the declared value of another.  Useful in conjunction with ‘auto’ when heavy operator overloading and casting is required. char Foo(); int i = 0; decltype(i) a; // a is an int decltype(0) b; // b is an int decltype(Foo()) c; // c is a char

26. Ranged-Based For Loop  An easier way to iterate through all the elements in a sequence of objects.  Supported by:  C-style arrays  Initializer lists  Types that implement begin() and end() iterators (STL Containers). int myArray[6] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}; int arrayTotal = 0; for (int &i : myArray) { arrayTotal += i; } std::cout << “The sum of all values is “ << arrayTotal << “.\n”; // 21

27. Singleton Pattern  Limit to one class instance  No public constructors  Single static instance  Semi-controversial design pattern  Don’t overuse it class S { public: static S& getInstance() { static S instance; return instance; } private: S(S const&); // Don't implement void operator=(S const&); }; Stolen from: http://stackoverflow.com/questions/100 8019/c-singleton-design-pattern http://stackoverflow.com/questions/100 8019/c-singleton-design-pattern

28. Treat Warnings as Errors

29. Visual Assist X  Intellisense++  Refactoring  Improved syntax highlighting  Keyboard shortcuts  Jump between header/source  £30 for students

30. Further Reading  Microsoft Developers Network (MSDN)  CPlusPlus.com