1. EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY REFLECTION FOR ACTION Canadian Edition O’Donnell, D’Amico, Schmid, Reeve, Smith

2. CHAPTER 2 Cognitive Development

3. Chapter 2 Cognitive Development
Themes of the Chapter
Biology and maturation underlie all developmental processes
Growth-promoting experience must occur in order for cognitive development to be fully realized
There are many school-related experiences that help learners realize their developmental potentials
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

4. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition
Guiding Questions
How does education enrich brain development?
How does Piaget explain cognitive development?
What are the stages of cognitive development?
How can teachers apply Piaget’s theory in the classroom?
(continued)
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

5. Guiding Questions (continued)
How does Vygotsky explain sociocognitive development?
How can teachers apply Vygotsky’s theory in the classroom?
How does language develop?
How can teachers use their knowledge of cognitive development when working with diverse learners and students with special needs?
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

6. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition
Brain Development
Brain structure and function
How does experience (education) affect brain development?
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

7. Brain Structure and Function
Hippocampus – processes a person’s new experiences
Amygdala – generate negative emotions as the brain’s warning system
Neurons – make all brain functions possible
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

8. Figure 2.1 Brain Structures and Their Functions
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

9. Brain Structure and Function
Exposure to a stimulating environment will stimulate neurons
When stimulated, neurons reach out to neighbouring neurons
With repeated stimulation, the number of connections between neurons increases and the neurons bond together
This pattern of connections is known as memory
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

10. Brain Structure and Function
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

11. How Education Affects Brain Development
Neural plasticity – brain’s capacity for structural change as the result of experience
Stimulating environments give the brain a great deal of information to process, store, remember, and later use to solve problems
The information may facilitate greater neuronal connectivity
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

12. Cognitive Development
Piaget’s Theory
Adaptations are inborn process of adjusting to the demands of the environment
Schemas are basic structures for organizing information
Behavioural schemas are mental representations of physical actions
Symbolic schemas are language-based mental representations of objects and events
Operations are mental actions to solve a problem
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

13. Assimilation and Accommodation
Assimilation is a process of incorporation in which some outside event is brought into a person’s way of thinking
Accommodation is a modification process in which an existing schema is changed or modified to make sense of something that is new and different
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

14. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition
Disequilibrium
Disequilibrium is a state of cognitive conflict that arises when one’s existing way of thinking is not confirmed by experience
Using adaptation a person can move from disequilibrium to equilibrium
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

15. Figure 2.3 Origins and Consequences of Disequilibrium
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

16. Piaget’s Stages in Cognitive Development
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

17. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition
Sensorimotor Stage
Primary circular reactions (1-4 months) Some actions are satisfying and repeated
Secondary circular reactions (4-8 months) Some actions are found to have interesting effects on the environment
Goal-directed behaviour (8-12 months) Intentions replace reflexes
Tertiary circular reactions (12-18 months) Curiosity leads to experimenting with objects
Symbolic problem solving (18-24 months) Symbolic images of environmental objects are created
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

18. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition
Sensorimotor Stage
Object Permanence – understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen or detected by other senses
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

19. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition
Preoperational Stage
Children create symbolic schemas to represent the objects and events around them
Children take part in pretend play
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

20. Concrete Operations Stage
Children can develop an internal mental activity that allows them to revise or alter a symbol or image to reach a logical conclusion
This mental manipulation can only be with concrete objects and events that lie in front of them
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

21. Capacities of Concrete-Operational Thinking
Animism
Belief that all things are alive and living
In concrete operations children can tell the difference between animate and inanimate objects
Centration
Focusing on an object’s most salient feature while neglecting equally important but less perceptually salient features
In concrete operations children can focus on more than one item at a time
(continued)
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

22. Capacities of Concrete-Operational Thinking (continued)
Transductive reasoning
Causal understanding in which a child thinks that when two events occur simultaneously, one must have caused the other
In concrete operations children have a better understanding of cause-and-effect relationships than in the preoperational stage
(continued)
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

23. Capacities of Concrete-Operational Thinking (continued)
Egocentrism
Viewing the world from one’s own perspective while failing to recognize that other people might have a different perspective or point of view
In concrete operations children are more aware of others’ perspectives than they were in the preoperational stage
(continued)
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

24. Capacities of Concrete-Operational Thinking (continued)
Reversibility
Capability to reverse an action by mentally performing its opposite
In concrete operations children can mentally undo an action
Classification
Grouping objects into categories
In concrete operations children advance to two-dimensional classifications
(continued)
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

25. Capacities of Concrete-Operational Thinking (continued)
Seriation
Mentally arranging or ordering a set of objects along a quantifiable dimension, such as height
In concrete operations children arrange objects in serial order from shortest to longest
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

26. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition
Conservation
This is the crucial operational schema that defines the concrete operations stage
It is the understanding that appearance alterations do not change the essential properties of an object
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

27. Figure 2.5 Three Piagetian Tests of a Child’s Capacity to Conserve
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

28. Capacities of Concrete-Operational Thinking
Generate a list of classroom activities that will involve the following:
Transductive reasoning
Conservation
Animism
Reversibility
Classification
Seriation
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

29. Formal Operations Stage
With formal-operational thinking, thinking can be independent of concrete reality and involve systematic problem solving
Inductive reasoning is the abstraction of a general principle from a variety of examples
Deductive reasoning is drawing information or hypotheses out of a general premise or a sample of evidence
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

30. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition
Your Turn
Develop a task for each stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
Justify why each task is appropriate for each stage
(See p. 49 in your textbook for teaching techniques to enrich formal operations in the classroom)
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

31. Three Applications of Piaget’s Theory
Be sensitive to individual differences
Motivate by stimulating curiosity
Guessing and feedback
Suspense
Controversy
Promote discovery-based learning
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

32. Limitations of Piaget’s Theory
Sometimes underestimates the intellectual capacity of infants, preschoolers, and elementary school students
Errs when it says that development is marked by qualitative changes
Robbie Case at University of Toronto
Studied the development of learning strategies in terms of changes in control structures involved in the solution of specific problems
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

33. Limitations of Piaget’s Theory
Discovery learning is not as effective as guided discovery learning
Neglects the importance of culture and social guidance in cognitive development
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

34. Sociocognitive Development
Vygotsky argued that cognitive development emerges mostly out of the child’s social interactions with parents, teachers, peers, and other competent members of society
Vygotsky advocated guided participation instead of discovery learning
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

35. Zone of Proximal Development
Predevelopment is a level of competence at which a student is unable to solve problems in that domain
Zone of proximal development is a level of competence on a task in which the student cannot yet master the task on his or her own but can accomplish that same task with appropriate guidance from a more capable partner
Actual development is a level at which students are capable of solving problems independently
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

36. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition
Scaffolding
The guidance, support, and tutelage provided by a teacher during social interaction designed to advance students’ current level of skill and understanding
Provides support
Extends the range of what a learner can do
Allows the learner to accomplish tasks otherwise impossible
Used only when needed
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

37. Instructional Conversations with Groups of Learners
IRE discourse model: conversation during teaching that follows an initiate, respond, evaluate script
PQS discourse model: conversation during teaching that follows a probe, question, scaffold script
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

38. Socially Shared Cognition
A shared understanding of a problem that emerges during group interaction that would not have been achieved by any individual member of the group acting alone
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

39. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition
Intersubjectivity
The unique product that arises from social interaction in which the interaction partners come to a shared understanding of how to manage the problem-solving situation
What are some examples of intersubjective experiences?
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

40. Transfer of Responsibility
Transfer of responsibility occurs as the student accomplished subgoals of the activity, gains skill and understanding, and shows less need for assistance
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

41. Role of Language in Cognitive Development
For Piaget, thought precedes language, and language is a by-product of cognitive development
For Vygotsky, language is a social bridge to connect a mentor’s advanced development with a novice’s immature development, and language creates cognitive development
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

42. Three Types of Private Speech
Self-guidance – remarks about one’s own activity that are public but not directed to anyone in particular
Reading aloud – reading books or other materials aloud, sounding out words, or silently mouthing words
Inaudible muttering – quiet remarks that cannot be heard by an observer
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

43. Influence of Cultural Tools
First level of sociocognitive development – face-to-face, one-on-one interaction between a competent member of the culture and a less competent member
Second level of sociocognitive development – through the culture’s history and technology, effective cultural tools for solving problems
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

44. Importance of Peers to Development
Sociocognitive development (Vygotsky) – more able peers can help as much as a teacher and are usually closer to the learner’s zone of proximal development
Cognitive development (Piaget) – peers can create cognitive conflict and thus promote development
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

45. Applications of Vygotsky’s Theory
Teacher as a guide, mentor
Peers as guides, mentors
Culture as guide, mentor
A new view of motivation
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

46. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

47. Canadian Research into Practice
Kieran Egan at Simon Fraser University, proposes a “modified Vygotskian approach” that draws upon and extends the notion of cognitive tools
By definition, oral experience has to precede literacy
“Cognitive Toolkits” enable us to make sense of the world
Teachers should draw upon the sense of wonder
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

48. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition
Language Development
Innate language acquisition device
Children learn the language of their culture naturally, mostly by listening (18 months to six years of age)
Syntax: children have a biological preparedness for structure of language
Phonology and semantics: these develop rapidly from age 2 through preschool
Role of a teacher: to provide many opportunities for children to use language to interact socially
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

49. Language Disabilities and Brain Functioning
Dyslexia – reading disability in which words are read from right to left and letters of the same configuration are reversed
Aphasia – language disability in which the person has difficulty understanding or producing speech
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

50. Technology Support for Young Readers & Readers with Special Needs
Talking books for young readers
Digital or computerized versions of traditional picture storybooks can promote phonological awareness, vocabulary development, and reading comprehension
Electronic books for students with special needs
Books with large print or audio and text-to-speech capabilities function as assistive technology
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

51. Text-Based Scaffolding Devices
Transitional resources – convert text to speech or definitions
Illustrative resources – add pictures, charts and videos to the text
Summarizing resources – overview of text with concept map or chapter outline
Notational resources – promote interaction with note taking or outlining
Enrichment resources – informational sidebars, historical background, and links to primary resources
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

52. Second Language Acquisition and Bilingualism
Relatively easy during childhood
Noticeably more difficult after puberty
Bilingualism
The use of two or more languages in everyday life
Proficiency in one language is highly related to proficiency in a second language
Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

53. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition
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Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition