1. Chapter Two Scope of Microbiology Topic:  In human welfare  Agriculture  Industry  Health and sanitation  Environment and pollution control

2. Teaching and learning methods: Lectures, visual aid, interactive forms, questions- answer session and group discussion. At end of the lecture student should be able to answer the following questions: Outline scope of microbiology in human welfare. Write the role of microorganism in agriculture and industry. Elucidate the effect of microorganisms on health and sanitation. Summarize how microorganisms are used to pollution in the environment. Reference books: 1.Microbiology: An Introduction, 12 th edition- Tortora GJ & Funke BR, Chapter one; Page: 13

3. Scope of Microbiology:  In human welfare  Agriculture  Industry  Health and sanitation  Environment and pollution control

4. In human welfare Microorganisms are vital to humans and the environment, as they participate in the Earth's element cycles such as the carbon cycle and nitrogen cycle, as well as fulfilling other vital roles in virtually all ecosystems, such as recycling other organisms' dead remains and waste products through decomposition. Microbes also have an important in most higher-order multicellular organisms as symbionts.

5. Importance of Microorganisms in Human Affairs Infectious disease: among the most common worldwide causes of death (more than 100,000 deaths/ year). E.g. Diarrhea, Pneumonia, Tuberculosis, Malaria, Hepatitis B, Measles, Tetanus, Whooping cough, AIDS, Amebiasis, Decay etc. Reduces complex organic chemical compounds to inorganic compounds. E.g. cellulose, fats, proteins, DNA and RNA, starches etc. Pollution Eutrophication, Bioremediation (cleanup) Photosynthesis and Nitrogen fixation Converts CO 2 to organic carbon compounds, Production of O 2 bottom of food chain, converts N 2 to usable Nitrogen-containing compounds

6. Importance of Microorganisms in Human Affairs Foods bread, cheese, milk products, alcoholic beverages, spoilage and preservatives Antibiotics Penicillins, tetracyclines, erythromycin, etc. Scientific Inquiry We study microorganisms because of their similarity to other organisms. Biochemically, all cells are similar, from bacteria to humans. Microorganisms are much easier to work with. Molecular Biology Gene cloning, genetic engineering Immunology Disease prevention, diagnosis

7. Importance in human health: Microorganisms can form an endosymbiotic relationship with other, larger organisms. For example, the bacteria that live within the human digestive system contribute to gut immunity, synthesize vitamins such as folic acid and biotin, and ferment complex indigestible carbohydrates. The human microbiome (or human microbiota) is the aggregate of microorganisms that reside on the surface of skin, in the saliva and oral mucosa, in the conjunctiva, and in the gastrointestinal tracts. They include bacteria, fungi, and archaea. Some of these organisms perform tasks that are useful for the human host. However, the majority have no known beneficial or harmful effect. Those that are expected to be present, and that under normal circumstances do not cause disease, but instead participate in maintaining health, are deemed members of the normal flora/ microbiota. Studies in 2009 questioned whether the decline in biota (including microfauna) as a result of human intervention might impede human health

8. Uses of Microbes in Foods: Microorganisms are used in brewing, winemaking, baking, pickling and other food-making processes. They are also used to control the fermentation process in the production of cultured dairy products such as yogurt and cheese. The cultures also provide flavor and aroma, and inhibit undesirable organisms. Fermentation in food processing typically is the conversion of carbohydrates to alcohols and carbon dioxide or organic acids using yeasts, bacteria, or a combination thereof, under anaerobic conditions. Fermentation in simple terms is the chemical conversion of sugars into ethanol. The science of fermentation is also known as zymology, or zymurgy. Fermentation usually implies that the action of microorganisms is desirable, and the process is used to produce alcoholic beverages such as wine, beer, and cider. Fermentation is also employed in the leavening of bread (CO 2 produced by yeast activity), and for preservation techniques to produce lactic acid in sour foods such as sauerkraut, dry sausages, kimchi and yogurt, or vinegar (acetic acid) for use in pickling foods.

9. Uses in water treatment: Specially-cultured microbes are used in the biological treatment of sewage and industrial waste effluent, a process known as bio-augmentation. Bioaugmentation is the introduction of a group of natural microbial strains or a genetically engineered variant to treat contaminated soil or water. Usually the steps involve studying the indigenous varieties present in the location to determine if biostimulation is possible. If the indigenous variety do not have the metabolic capability to perform the remediation process, exogenous varieties with such sophisticated pathways are introduced.

10. Uses in energy: Microbes are used in fermentation to produce ethanol, and in biogas reactors to produce methane. Scientists are researching the use of algae to produce liquid fuels, and bacteria to convert various forms of agricultural and urban waste into usable fuels. Ethanol fermentation, also referred to as alcoholic fermentation, is a biological process in which sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose are converted into cellular energy and thereby produce ethanol and carbon dioxide as metabolic waste products. Because yeasts perform this conversion in the absence of oxygen, ethanol fermentation is classified as anaerobic. Ethanol fermentation occurs in the production of alcoholic beverages and ethanol fuel. Cellulosic ethanol is a biofuel produced from wood, grasses, or the non-edible parts of plants.

11. Use in production of chemicals, enzymes etc.: Many microbes are used for commercial and industrial production of chemicals, enzymes and other bioactive molecules. Examples of organic acid produced include- Acetic acid : Produced by the bacterium Acetobacter aceti and other acetic acid bacteria (AAB) Acetic acid bacteria (AAB) are bacteria that derive their energy from the oxidation of ethanol to acetic acid during fermentation. They are Gram-negative, aerobic, rod-shaped bacteria. They are not to be confused with the genus Acetobacterium, which are anaerobic homoacetogenic facultative autotrophs and can reduce carbon dioxide to produce acetic acid, for example, Acetobacterium woodii. Butyric acid (butanoic acid): Produced by the bacterium Clostridium butyricum. Clostridium butyricum is a strictly anaerobic endospore-forming Gram-positive.

12. Lactic acid : Lactobacillus and others commonly called as lactic acid bacteria (LAB). The lactic acid bacteria (LAB) comprise a clade of Gram-positive, low-GC, acid-tolerant cocci. These bacteria, usually found in decomposing plants and lactic products, produce lactic acid as the major metabolic end-product of carbohydrate fermentation. Citric acid : Produced by the fungus Aspergillus niger. Aspergillus niger is a fungus and one of the most common species of the genus Aspergillus. It causes a disease called black mold on certain fruits and vegetables such as grapes, onions, and peanuts, and is a common contaminant of food. It is ubiquitous in soil and is commonly reported from indoor environments.

13. Microbes are used for preparation of bioactive molecules and enzymes. Streptokinase produced by the bacterium Streptococcus and modified by genetic engineering is used as a clot buster for removing clots from the blood vessels of patients who have undergone myocardial infarctions leading to heart attack. Cyclosporin A is a bioactive molecule used as an immunosuppressive agent in organ transplantation.

14. Uses in science: Uses in science Microbes are also essential tools in biotechnology, biochemistry, genetics, and molecular biology. The yeasts ( Saccharomyces cerevisiae ) and fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe) are important model organisms in science, since they are simple eukaryotes that can be grown rapidly in large numbers and are easily manipulated. They are particularly valuable in genetics, genomics and proteomics. Microbes can be harnessed for uses such as creating steroids and treating skin diseases. Scientists are also considering using microbes for living fuel cells, and as a solution for pollution.

15. Importance in ecology: Microbes are critical to the processes of decomposition required to cycle nitrogen and other elements back to the natural world. Decomposition (or rotting) is the process by which organic substances are broken down into simpler forms of matter. The process is essential for recycling the finite matter that occupies physical space in the biome. Bodies of living organisms begin to decompose shortly after death. Although no two organisms decompose in the same way, they all undergo the same sequential stages of decomposition. The science which studies decomposition is generally referred to as taphonomy from the Greek word taphos, meaning tomb. One can differentiate abiotic from biotic decomposition (biodegradation). The former means "degradation of a substance by chemical or physical processes, eg hydrolysis). The latter one means "the metabolic breakdown of materials into simpler components by living organisms", typically by microorganisms.

16. Uses in warfare: Uses in warfare In the Middle Ages, diseased corpses were thrown into castles during sieges using catapults or other siege engines. Individuals near the corpses were exposed to the deadly pathogen and were likely to spread that pathogen to others. Biological warfare (also known as germ warfare) is the use of biological toxins or infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi with intent to kill or incapacitate humans, animals or plants as an act of war. Biological weapons (often termed "bio-weapons" or "bio-agents") are living organisms or replicating entities (viruses) that reproduce or replicate within their host victims. Entomological (insect) warfare is also considered a type of biological warfare. Biological weapons may be employed in various ways to gain a strategic or tactical advantage over an adversary, either by threats or by actual deployments. Like some of the chemical weapons, biological weapons may also be useful as area denial weapons. These agents may be lethal or non-lethal, and may be targeted against a single individual, a group of people, or even an entire population. They may be developed, acquired, stockpiled or deployed by nation states or by non-national groups. In the latter case, or if a nation-state uses it clandestinely, it may also be considered bioterrorism.

17. Hygiene: Hygiene is the avoidance of infection or food spoiling by eliminating microorganisms from the surroundings. As microorganisms, in particular bacteria, are found virtually everywhere, the levels of harmful microorganisms can be reduced to acceptable levels. However, in some cases, it is required that an object or substance be completely sterile, i.e. devoid of all living entities and viruses. A good example of this is a hypodermic needle. In food preparation microorganisms are reduced by preservation methods (such as the addition of vinegar), clean utensils used in preparation, short storage periods, or by cool temperatures. If complete sterility is needed, the two most common methods are irradiation and the use of an autoclave, which resembles a pressure cooker.

18. Biotechnology & Bioremediation Biotechnology- when humans manipulate (microorganisms to make products in an industrial setting – Genetic engineering- create new products and “genetically modified organisms” (GMOs) – Recombinant DNA technology- technology used to engineer GMOs capable of synthesizing desirable proteins (i.e. medicines, hormones, and enzymes) Bioremediation - activity of microbes in the environment helping to restore stability or clean up toxic pollutants – Oil spills – Chemical spills – Water and sewage treatment