1. Habituation & Respondent Learning
Chapter 6
Habituation &
Respondent Learning
In this chapter we will look at three types of learning, habituation, respondent, and operant . The first two will be described in some detail in this chapter, but we devote all of chapter 7 to operant learning because of its importance and its complexity.

2. Recap:Reflexes as Universal I Behaviors
Hard - Wired
Present at birth
Do not need much experience
Unlearned thus “Unconditioned”
Reflex is not a behavior but stimulus-behavior relationship

3. Recap: Reflex as Unlearned Stimulus-Behavior Relationship
UnConditioned = Unlearned
Stimulus - environmental event
Behavior = Response - action of organism
UCS > CR

4. Recap: Examples of Reflexes
Consummatory
Defensive
Social

5. Consummatory Reflexes
Search

6. Defensive Reflexes

7. How Do Reflexes Change? 1. Reflexes May Stay the Same
2. Reflexes May Disappear
3. Reflexes May Be Elicited by New Stimuli - Respondent Conditioning
4. Reflexes May be Elaborated into New Behaviors - Operant Conditioning

8. What is Learning?
Relatively permanent change in behavior that is due to experience
Change in behavior (in relation to environ.
Change is “relatively” permanent
Due to experience (not maturation)
Learning is the single most significant process in producing the changes we call development.

9. Selectionism - Learning as a Natural Process
Parallel to natural selection - phylogenic
Ontogenic contingencies - Learning
Variability
Selection
Retention
Three processes that occur in nature are required for selectionism to function:
(1) variation: Variation is the rule in nature. Variation is also the rule in behavior. Some behaviors are more variable than others. Even seemingly simple behaviors like walking and talking have some variations in them. They do not occur precisely the same way each time. When behaviors first occur, they are likely to be the most variable.
(2) selection: Once various options are available, then there needs to be a process that results in a particular one being kept. In phylogenic selection, particular individuals survive because they have phenotypic characteristics that make them more capable in some ways. They survive because they can better adapt to their environments than others with other phenotypes. So too does the environment select behaviors that fit best. The environment “selects” those that best fit. Most human behavior patterns are selected by the environment during ontogenic development thus enabling the individual to adjust to varied and quickly changing environments in ways that the species, as a whole, cannot.
(3) retention: There must be a way to keep the changes that have been selected by the environment so that changes are not lost. In phylogenic development, changes are retained in the genes. There is still much debate over the retention mechanisms for ontogenic development and learning.

10. The Evolutionary Significance of Learning
Natural selection - survival of species
Learning - survival of individual
Ontogenic Adaptability
Learning and natural selection are parallel processes.
Learning involves the contingencies in ontogenic development.

11. A Parallelism Between Evolution and Learning
Phylogenic Contingencies -
Natural Selection
Ontogenic Contingencies
Selection by Consequences
Learning
Natural selection involves the contingencies in phylogenic development.
It has been argued that selectionism is the basic process in ontogenic, as well as phylogenic development.
Selectionism implies that there is no set complex plan, but that processes occurring in nature can yield complexity in creatures and their behavior.

12. Selectionism - Learning as a Natural Process
How does Learning Relate to Development?
Is Learning "A" process or "THE" process in development?

13. Learning -- What Develops?
Stimulus-Response Relationships
Classifying Stimuli
Physical Stimulus Classes
Functional Stimulus Classes
Response Classes
Topography
Function
Classes mean Variability
We can categorize stimuli in a number of ways. A common way is to classify stimuli based on their physical characteristics (structural approach to classifying stimuli). The classes are based on what the stimuli look like and not what they do. Bijou and Baer identified four physical stimulus classes:
1. Physical: objects and natural phenomena
2. Chemical: gases that have an effect at a distance
3. Organismic: the organism’s own biological structure
4. Social: the appearance, action and interaction of people and animals
A stimulus is an environmental change or event. Stimuli can be classified on the basis of their topography (physical characteristics) or function (the effects of stimuli on behavior). The function of a stimulus, however, is of greater importance in the study of development.

14. Types of Learning Habituation Respondent Learning Operant Learning
In this chapter we look at three types of learning. The first two, habituation and respondent learning are specific to behaviors called reflexes. The third is called operant learning and is the primary process in producing INSTRUMENTAL behaviors that make up the largest class of human behaviors. We start with the simplest learning process, habituation.

15. Habituation Defining Characteristics
Start with a reflex
UCS UCR
Repeated UCS lead to decrement in or elimination of responding
Not due to fatigue
As generally defined habituation is a decrease or elimination of responding to a particular stimulus as a result of repetitive presentations of that stimulus.
Nonhuman Studies: There is an extensive history of research reporting habituation in nonhumans. In a recent experiment with cats, Crampton & Lucot (1991) exposed cats to a “motion sickness” stimulus, which initially elicited a retching response. With repeated exposure to the stimulus, there was a pronounced decrease in the incidence of retching which suggested habituation.
Infant Studies: Habituation has not only been demonstrated in neonates and older infants, but with fetuses as well.
Defining Characteristics of Habituation
there must be a decrement in responding
this decrement must follow the repeated presentations of a particular stimulus
it only applies to those stimulus-response (S-R) relations commonly called reflexes
decrement in responding must not be the product of other processes such as satiation or fatigue
These four necessary conditions, taken together, constitute a sufficient condition for habituation.
How then do you distinguish habituation from these other types of decreased responding?
Present the infant with a novel stimulus from the same sensory modality as the habituated stimulus. If the infant’s response returns to its earlier level, the response decrement was probably habituation; if it does not, the response decrement was probably the product of another process.
Why Study Habituation?:
(1)Habituation is a form of learning that plays a critical role during a child’s life.
(2)Habituation needs to be understood by students of child development because of the role it frequently plays in infant studies, as we saw in Chapter 4.

16. Habituation UCS ---------> UCR UCS --------> UCR
UCS (habituation)
Contiguity and Learning: Contiguity is very important process for learning because it is a feature that strongly affects learning by association. The principle of contiguity sates that whenever two or more events that produce sensations occur together often enough (either in time or space) they will become associated by the observer. After several occasions of being contiguous, whenever only one of these events (a stimulus) occurs, the other will be experienced (or remembered) too (by the observer responding to it).

17. Habituation BANG -------> Jump BANG!-------->Jump

18. Respondent Learning Nonhuman Studies Infant Studies
Defining characteristics
Generalization
Discrimination
Respondent Extinction
Why study respondent learning?
Types of Behaviors
Respondent Learning (also called classical conditioning or Palovian conditioning): This type of learning focuses on the learning of reflexes or "involuntary" physiological responses, such as those involved in fear, heartbeat, pupillary constriction, galvanic skin response (sweating of the palms) which are often called respondents. They are automatically triggered by stimuli in the environment. Through this process of classical conditioning humans and animals can learn to respond or react to a stimulus that was originally neutral and had no effect.
Nonhuman Studies:
Pavlov’s experiment with dogs: ringing a bell immediately before feeding the dogs. Following several bell/food pairings, Pavlov presented the sound of the bell alone. The dogs salivated. In technical terms, the presence of food in the mouth was the UCS, and salivation was the UCR. Before conducting the experiment, the bell was a NS. However, after pairings of the food presentation with the bell, the previously-neutral sound of the bell became a CS eliciting the CR (salivation).
Harlow’s experiment with monkeys: By pairing presentation of a tone (the NS) with an electric shock (the UCS). After completion of training, the presentation of the tone alone elicited movement.
Caldwell and Werboff: paired the presentation of a vibrotactile stimulus (the NS) with an electric shock (the UCS) to the forelimb. After a number of such pairings, the vibrotactile stimulus alone (now the CS) elicited movement (the CR).
Infant Studies on Respondent Learning:
Little Albert by Albert and Rayner: During the initial stage of their experiment, Watson and Rayner presented a friendly white rat to their subject. During the next stage of the experiment, a loud noise
was paired with presentations of the rat. The loud noise elicited crying. Eventually the presence of the rat alone elicited crying.
Why study respondent learning? :
Respondent learning plays a critical role in helping the child successfully adapt to her environment. We can help individuals to risk anxiety-producing situations voluntarily and successfully after respondent training.
The process of respondent learning helps explain the wide variety of emotional responses a child makes to the world.
Types of Behaviors : As we have noted, a defining characteristic of respondent behavior is that it involves reflexive behaviors2. However, are the UCR and the CR the same response, but differing only in terms of the stimuli that elicit them? The answer is no. In most cases the CR will be at least slightly different from the UCR.

19. Respondent Learning Defining Characteristics
Reflex
UCS >UCR
Neutral Stimulus
NS (Doesn’t elicit UCR)
With repeated pairings NS elicits Response
CS >CR
Defining Characteristics of Respondent Learning:
(1)The initial s-r relation must be an unlearned, automatic, respondent relation;
(2)The UCS must be paired with a NS;
(3)Presentations of the CS alone must elicit the response.
(4)The response elicited by the previously-neutral stimulus must not be the product of other processes such as sensitization. Taken together, these four conditions constitute the necessary and sufficient conditions for demonstrating respondent learning.
Respondent=Reflex
What is respondent learning?:
In a respondent S-R relation, the stimulus is termed the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the response (UCR), the unconditioned response.
Example:
(UCS) is the loud noise and vibration produced by the spoon, and the (UCR) is the flapping of bird’s wings.
(NS) presence of a spoon prior to Jenny’s having banged the cage numerous times with the spoon.
(CS) pairing of the presentations of the UCS (the noise and vibrations produced by the spoon) with presentations of the NS (the spoon). Not a NS anymore.
(CR) response of CS (the flapping of wings, etc.)

20. Respondent Learning NS
UCS >UCR
UCS >UCR

21. Respondent Learning (cont.)NS
UCS >UCR
CS CR (Respondent Learning)

22. Respondent Learning (e.g.)
CS(rat) >CR(fear)
UCS (Bang!) >UCR(fear)

23. Extinction Repeated presentations of CS alone leads to disappearance of the CR to CS
CS >CR CS
Respondent Extinction: The defining characteristic of respondent extinction is that the CS no longer elicits a CR. The CS has returned to serving as a NS. If a CS is created by the pairing of a NS with a UCS, extinction is brought about by presenting the CS without the UCS.

24. Generalization vs. Discrimination
Other (unpaired) stimuli elicit CR
Discrimination
CR to some stimuli but not others
Generalization: When a conditioned response is established, the CR is not only elicited by the CS, but by other stimuli that are similar to the CS. Generalization explains how new stimuli not directly present can come to elicit conditioned responses. Our fears are often the result of generalization after respondent conditioning to a stimulus. For example, in the Little Albert study, Albert not only showed fear to the rat, but to a rabbit, cotton wool, and even Watson’s hair.
Discrimination: Discrimination is demonstrated by the lack of a response to other stimuli similar to that involved in the original conditioning. Pavlov at some point is his research, was also able to teach dogs discrimination–to salivate to one tone but not to others that were similar.

25. Practical Problem with Extinction Escape or Avoidance
Systematic Densitization
Fear Hierarchy
Gradual Extinction
Counter Conditioning
Associate CS to an UCS which elicits an incompatible UCR
e.g. pair rabbit with candy
rabbit elicits similar response that candy does
Psychologists treating the intense fears known as phobias have developed some specialized procedures to reduce the intensity of the conditioned emotional response and to reduce escape. Two of these are:
Systematic Desensitization: A hierarchy of stimuli is created by ranking the intensity of the fear produced by each stimulus from most to least. Extinction to this first stimulus would make successful desensitization
to the next stimulus possible. Thus the child would be presented the second stimulus on his hierarchy until it could be presented without eliciting an emotional response. Successive stimuli on the hierarchy would be presented until the child’s response to the last stimulus (the snarling pit bulls) is also desensitized (i.e., extinguished).
Counter conditioning
In counter conditioning, the conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus which elicits a response opposite (or counter) to the conditioned response. Thus a new conditioned response is established to "counter" the original.
Examples: Paring of candy and rabbit to eliminate fear of the rabbit.

26. What Factors Influence Respondent Acquisition?
Order of Presentation
Forward or Delayed
Trace
Backward
NS >UCS Interval
Intensity of the UCS
Are We Biologically “Prepared” to Learn?
Organisms may be prepared by phylogeny to behave in the same way as their ancestors, but they are also prepared to start learning right away, even prenatally. A variety of behavior is available before learning occurs and it comes in many forms. Some stimulus-response relations are easier to establish than others are.
Order of Presentation of the Stimulus:
Forward or Delayed
Trace
Backward
NS–UCS Interval: In trace conditioning a long delay between the NS and UCS will be less effective. Indeed, it is unlikely that an association will be made between a threat (NS) and a spanking (UCS) if the spanking occurs the following day, for example. Too long, or too short a latency between NS onset and UCS onset will also inhibit the formation of a CR. One-half second seems to be optimal in adults.
Intensity of the UCS: An intense UCS (e.g., loud sound, bright light) will lead to easier conditioning, within fewer trials. Highly intense stimuli may produce one trial conditioning, as when a fear of an object may be produced if there is a stimulus that elicits an intense emotional response.

27. Forward or Trace ConditioningNS
UCS >UCR
Most effective
Forward or Trace Conditioning: The onset of the NS precedes the UCS and terminates either with onset of the UCS or remains present for a time along with the UCS. This one is the most effective one.
Example-
1.Nipple on bottle= UCS, which elicits sucking (the UCR) in an infant= sucking reflex.
2. Precede the onset of the UCS with the onset of a tone (NS)
3. With repeated presentations, the tone alone elicited sucking demonstrating that the tone had become a CS, since it elicited a CR, the sucking to the tone.

28. Trace conditioning NS UCS------->UCR Some effects
Trace conditioning: The NS also precedes the UCS, but the NS is terminated before the onset of the UCS. This procedure produces weaker conditioning than delayed conditioning, particularly if the gap between the end of the NS and onset of the UCS is long.
Example- the mother would stop talking before placing the nipple in the baby’s mouth.

29. Backward Conditioning
UCS >UCR NS
Not effective
Serve as a control for sensitization
Backward Conditioning: The UCS precedes the NS. This is the least effective of the three procedures.
Example- this would mean that the mother would place the nipple in the infant’s mouth and then begin to speak