1. Forensic Anthropology
Human Remains
Forensic Anthropology

2. Anatomical Terms
Anatomy – the study of structures or body parts and their relationship to one another
Anatomical Position – body is erect, feet together, palms face forward with thumbs pointing away from the body
Anthropology – the study of human remains
Autopsy – the thorough examination of a corpse by dissection to determine manner and cause of death

3. Directional Terms
Superior – the part is above another, or closer to the head (aka cranial)
vs.
Inferior – the part is below another, or closer to the feet (aka caudal)
Anterior – meaning toward the front (aka ventral)
Posterior – meaning toward the back (aka dorsal)
Medial – relates to the imaginary midline dividing the body into equal halves (i.e. The nose is medial to the eyes.)
Lateral – meaning toward the sides with respect to the imaginary line (i.e. The ears are lateral to the eyes.)

5. Ipsilateral – the same side (i. e
Ipsilateral – the same side (i.e. The spleen and descending colon are ipsilateral.)
vs.
Contralateral – the opposite side (i.e. The spleen and gall bladder are contralateral.)
Proximal – closer to the trunk of the body (i.e. The elbow is proximal to the wrist.)
Distal – further from the trunk (i.e. Fingers are distal to the wrist.)
Superficial – closer to the surface
Deep – parts that are more internal

7. Bones - Function There are 206 bones in the body
The function of the bones are to...
-Provide structure and rigidity
-Protect soft tissue and organs
-Serves as an attachment for muscles
-Produces blood cells
~bone marrow produces an average of 2.6 million red blood cells each second
-Serves as a storage area for minerals
-Can detoxify the body by removing heavy metals and other foreign elements from the blood

8. Bone Fractures Fracture – break in the structural continuity of a bone
Simple/Closed fracture – overlying skin remains intact
Compound/Open fracture – skin or one of the body cavities is breached

9. Complete Fractures Bone is split into two or more fragments.
Transverse Fracture: fracture line occurs along the width of the bone
Oblique/Spiral Fracture: fracture line occurs along a diagonal
Impacted Fracture: one of the broken fragments is driven into another bone fragment
Comminuted Fracture: bone is broken into more than 2 fragments

10. Incomplete Fractures
The bone is incompletely divided and remains in one piece.
Greenstick Fracture: bone is buckled or bent;
Usually seen in children
Compression Fracture: crumpled bone, usually in the vertebrae
Caused by aging bone – seen in older people
Fissure/Hairline Fracture: only the surface of the bone is broken

11. Bone Identification There are 206 bones in the body
Bones are divided into types: Long, short, flat, irregular

13. Axial Skeleton - Skull
Eye Orbits

14. Axial Skeleton – Rib Cage
Sternum
Vertebral Column
Ribs (12)
7 ribs
5 false ribs
Sacrum
Coccyx

15. Appendicular Skeleton – Shoulder Girdle
Also known as the shoulder girdle
Clavicles
Scapulae
Supports upper limbs
True shoulder joint is simply the articulation of the humerus and scapula

16. Appendicular Skeleton – Upper Limb
Humerus
Radius
Ulna
(Interosseous membrane)
Carpals
Metacarpals
Phalanges

17. Humerus

18. Radius & Ulna

19. Wrist and Hand Carpal Bones (16 total bones) Metacarpal Bones (10)
Scaphoid
Lunate
Triquetral
Pisiform
Hamate
Capitate
Trapezoid
Trapezium
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Radius
Scaphoid
Ulna
Scaphoid
Lunate
Capitate
Capitate
Hamate
Trapezoid
Trapezoid
Triquetrum
Trapezium
Trapezium
Pisiform
Carpals
(carpus) 1 1
Metacarpals
(metacarpus) 5 5 2 4 2 3 4 3
Metacarpal Bones (10)
Proximal
phalanx
Phalangeal Bones (28)
Proximal phalanx
Middle phalanx
Distal phalanx
Middle
phalanx
Phalanges
Distal
phalanx
(a)
(b)

20. Appendicular Skeleton – Pelvic Girdle
Posterior View
Ilium
Sacrum
Coccyx
Pubic Arch
Anterior View
Symphisis pubis

21. Pelvic Girdle – Hip Bones
Ilium
Ilium
Ischium
Pubis
Ischium
Pubis

22. Differences Between Male and Female
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Female pelvis
Iliac bones more flared
Broader hips
Pubic arch angle greater
More distance between ischial spines and ischial tuberosities
Sacral curvature shorter and flatter
Lighter bones
Why?
Flared ilium
Sacral promontory
Pelvic brim
Symphysis pubis
(a) Female pelvis
Pubic arch
Sacral promontory
Sacral curvature
(b) Male pelvis
Pubic arch

23. Appendicular Skeleton – Lower Limb
Femur – longest bone in the body
Patella
Tibia
Fibula
Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges

24. What can bones tell us? What was the gender of the person?
What was the approximate age of the person?
What was the height of the person?
What was the approximate weight of the person?
What was the race of the person?

25. Calculating Height
Men and women have different proportions of long bones meaning that there are different formulas for finding height.
Estimated height of a female in centimeters:
-H= femur length X
-H= tibia length X
-H= humerus length X
-H= radius length X
Estimated height of a male in centimeters:
-H= femur length X
-H= tibia length X
-H= humerus length X
-H= radius length X

26. Bones Considered to Determine Height
Femur- Long bone found in the leg extending from the hip to the knee
Tibia- Long bone found in the leg extending from the knee to the ankle
Humerus- Long bone found in the arm extending from the shoulder to the elbow
Radius - Long bone found in the arm extending from the elbow to the wrist

27. Sex Determination
The pubic bones, sacrum, and ilium of the pelvis are bones that have the most obvious differences between sexes.
The shape of the skull, jaw, and the size of the occipital protuberance (bump) at the back of the skull to determine male or female traits.
Bone size are most commonly considered to determine gender
Women tend to have a straighter sacrum and a larger space in the middle of the pelvic bone and the pubic arch has a larger angle.
Men tend to have larger areas for muscle attachment and a more curved sacrum and the pubic body is narrower also males do not usually have a ventral arc.

28. Comparing the three characteristics of the pubic bones
-the width of the pubic arch
-the width of the pubic body
-the existence of a well-defined ventral arc
~a bony ridge on the lower side of the female pubic bone
normally appears in its most recognized state when a women is in her mid- 20s.
4% of females will not show any ventral arc

29. Male vs. Female

30. Male vs. Female

31. Determining Age Bone Changes Throughout Lifespan:
Decrease in height at about age 30
Calcium levels fall
Bones become brittle
Osteoclasts (“bone breakers”) outnumber osteoblasts (“bone builders”)
Spongy bone weakens before compact bone
Bone loss rapid in menopausal women
Hip fractures common
Vertebral compression fractures common

32. Determining Age
Biological changes that took place during a person’s life are examined
Teeth are erupting
Bones are growing
Epiphyses – growth plates found at the ends of the long bones. They form in adolescence and fuse to the bone during early adulthood
Closure of the cranial sutures in the skull
After the growth period from about years, the age estimation becomes more difficult
The forensic anthropologist gives the investigators an age range to avoid excluding any possibilities

33. Epiphyses Examination

34. Determining Age – Cranial Structure
Sutures – immovable joints where bones are joined together; they are visible as seams on the surface
Coronal suture – runs from temporal area on one side over the top of the skull to the other side
Lamboidal suture – located on the back of the skull
Sagittal suture - located along the top of the skull, dividing right from left, and runs from the top of the skull to the middle of the back of the skull.
-if it’s completely closed
~male : 26 years of age or older
~female : 29 years of age or older
-if it’s completely open
~male : younger than 32 years old
~female : younger than 35 years old
- If the skull shows complete closure of all three major sutures
~male : older than 35
~female : older than 50

36. Infantile Skull Fontanels – fibrous membranes Anterior Fontanel
Posterior Fontanel

37. Determining Race
- There are three major anthropological racial groups based on skeletal features that are observable.
- In most regions, populations have mixed blurring the distinct features of each race.
Caucasoids
-people of European, Middle Eastern, and East Indian descent
-tend to have a long, narrow nasal aperture; a triangular palate; oval orbits; narrow zygomatic arches; and narrow mandibles
Negroids
-people of African, Aborigine, and Melanesian descent
-tend to have a wide nasal aperture, a rectangular plate, square orbits, and more pronounced zygomatic arches. Greater density bones as well as longer with less curvature.
Mongoloids
-people of Asian, Native American, and Polynesian descent
-tend to have a more rounded nasal aperture, a parabolic plate, rounded orbits, wide zygomatic arches, and more pointed mandibles.

38. Determining Race

39. Facial Reconstruction
Steps in facial reconstruction
Establish gender, age, and if possible race
Glue tissue markers to landmarks directly on the skull for tissue thickness
Mark muscle insertion points
Select a data set to use for the particular skull, and mount markers for the exact thickness of tissue
Mount eyes in the sockets, centered and at the proper depth
Apply clay to the skull following its contours, using the depth of the tissue markers and muscle insertion points
Make measurements to determine the nose thickness and length and the mouth thickness and width
Cover the skull with layers of skin and add details of the face

40. Facial Reconstruction