1. ESSENTIAL OILS
VOLATILE OILS

2. Volatile oils Are volatile in steam
Differ entirely from fixed oils in both chemical and physical properties.
Frequently associated with other substances such as gums and resins.
Tend to resinify on exposure to air.
They are secreted in:
oil cells.
secretion ducts or cavities.
glandular hairs.

3. USES OF ESSENTIAL OILS
Essential oils are consumed in numerous uses; they are used :
For their therapeutic actions.
For flavoring, e.g. oil of lemon.
In perfumery, e.g. oil of rose
As starting materials for the synthesis of other compounds, e.g. oil of trupentine

4. Therapeutic Purposes Of Volatile Oils

5. They are used : As inhalations, e.g. eucalyptus oil.
Orally, e.g. peppermint oil.
As gargles & mouthwashes, e.g. thymol.
Transdermally
In aromatherapy, e.g. lavender, rosemary & bergamot

6. Oils with a high phenol content, e. g
Oils with a high phenol content, e.g. clove and thyme have antiseptic properties. Oils showing antispasmodic activity. e.g. fennel, mentha,chamomile, anise, rosemary. Whereas others are used as carminatives. Used in food preservation & cosmetic preparations. NOTE carminatives means: either prevents formation of gas in the GIT or facilitates the expulsion of gas.

7. Composition of Volatile Oils
Volatile oils are generally mixtures of hydrocarbons and oxygenated compounds derived from these hydrocarbons.
The odor and taste of volatile oils is mainly determined by these oxygenated constituents, which are to some extent soluble in water but more soluble in alcohol.
NOTE
Rose water & tinctures of lemon

10. Physical Properties

11. Although volatile oils have different chemical properties, they have a number of physical properties in common:
They possess characteristic odors.
They are characterized by high refractive indices.
Most of them are optically active.
Their density is generally lower than that of water (except for sassafras, clove & cinnamon oils).
May darken in color when exposed to light.
They are immiscible with water, but they are sufficiently soluble to impart their odor to water. The aromaticity of water depend on this slight solubility.

12. Preparation of volatile oils
Essential oils are prepared by:
Distillation.
Scarification and expression.
Extraction.
Enzymatic hydrolysis.
Enfleurage.

13. A- Distillation
There are three basic types of essential oil distillation:
water or "hydro-distillation"
water and steam or "wet steam"
steam or "dry steam“
1- Hydro-distillation in this method the plant material is immersed totally in boiling water. The disadvantages are that the heat is difficult to control and hence the rate of distillation is variable. Also there is a possibility for overheating and "burning" which lead to a poorer quality oil.

14. 2- Water/steam distillation the plant material is placed on a grid which keeps the plant material above the water level. The water is boiled below the grid and "wet" steam passes through the plant material. Over packing of the still can cause the steam to leave parts of the plant un-extracted.
3- Steam Distillation by direct steam provided from a separate boiler. The still contains a grid plate under which an open steam pipe is fitted. The advantages of "dry" steam distillation are that it is rapid, therefore it is less likely to damage those oils. Most advanced type of distillation

15. B-Scarification and expression
These are mechanical techniques carried at room temperature.
Used in preparation of heat sensitive oils.
Process:
Squeezing of the plant material under water stream which yield a mixture of essential oil, water, cellulose, wax and other substance.
Removal of water an cellulose by centrifugation.
Removal of wax by chilling followed by feltration.

16. C- Extraction
For preparation of delicate flowers oils which contain either small amounts of oils or heat sensitive oils
Classified into:
Non-volatile solvent extraction.
Volatile solvent extraction.
Extraction with supercritical gases.

17. D- Enzymatic hydrolysis
For glycosidic volatile oils e.g. mustard oil.
Principle:
Subjecting the plant material to enzymatic hydrolysis to liberate the volatile constituents.
Separation of the volatile constituents by distillation or extraction.
Purification of the products.

18. E- ENFLEURAGE Used to extract oils utilized in perfumery. Process:
A glass plate is covered with a thin coating of especially prepared and odourless fat.
The freshly cut flowers are individually laid on to the fat which in time becomes saturated with their essential oils.
The flowers are renewed with fresh material.

19. Difference between Volatile & Fixed Oils

20. Carrier oils AKA fixed or base oils; are the oily non volatile part of the plant, typically obtained from the seed or nut. They are called ‘fixed’ as they have large molecules that do not evaporate like the essential oils.
Several points differ between volatile oils and fixed oils:
Volatile oils can be distilled from their natural sources.
Volatile oils do not consist of glyceryl esters of fatty acids. Hence, they do not leave a permanent grease spot on paper and cannot be saponified with alkalis.
Volatile oils do not become rancid as do the fixed oils, but instead, on exposure to light and air, they oxidize and resinify.

21. 1- Clove (Caryophylli) قرنفل (مسمار)
Origin:
Clove consists of the whole flower buds of Syzygium aromaticum . F. Myrtaceae.dried until they become reddish-brown.
Morphology
The flower bud is reddish-brown and consists of a quadrangular stalked portion, the hypanthium, 10 mm to 17.5 mm long, surmounted by four divergent lobes of sepals which surround a globular head .The head is globular and dome-shaped, composed of four imbricated petals

22. The powder is dark brown and has strong aromatic spicy agreeable odour and warm spicy agreeable taste Examine under a microscope The powder shows
epidermis and underlying parenchyma
Large oil glands
short fibers occurring singly or in small groups
with thickened, lignified walls .
abundant of parenchyma containing
cluster crystals of calcium oxalate
numerous triangular pollen grains
Xylem vessels and fibres.
Note : prisms of calcium and Starch granules are
absent.

23. Uses
relieve pain and to promote healing 
flavouring industries (spice)
anaesthetic properties (for toothache)
Antispasmodic and carminative
In manufacture of vanillin.
Active constituents
volatile oil (15 -20%) ,which contain eugenol (85%).
Pyrogallol tannin.
Chemical test
sudan III → red colour.
FeCl3 → blue colour.
KOH: needle crystals of K eugenate.

24. Adulteration of clove:
Clove Stalks
Externally, they are brownish and rough .internally presence of prisms of calcium oxalate and pseudo crystal sheath.
Mother Cloves
This can be detected by the presence of much starch in the seeds.
Brown Cloves ( Expanded flowers)
Exhausted Cloves
lighter than water

25. 2- German chamomile البابونج
Origin:
German chamomile is the dried flower heads of Matricaria chamomilla, family Compositae
Morphology
The flower head is almost hemispherical,
with hollow receptacle carrying two types
of small sessile flowers called florets:
ray florets and central or disc florets.

26. Active constituents:
flavonoid glycosides.
volatile oil contains matricarin which converted to chamazulene by heating.
Uses
calm frayed nerves (tranquilizer).
carminative, antispasmodic.
local anti-inflammatory for sun burns
Chemical test: sudan III : red colour

27. 3- Anise Fruit (Fructus Anisi, Aniseed) يانسون
Origin:
Is dried ripe fruits of Pimpinella anisum F. Umbelliferae
Morphology
Anise fruits are greyish brown, about 2-12mm. long, ovoid,They are broad near the base, and taper gradually towards the apex, which is crowned with a stylopod. Cremocarp separated into its meri-carps which usually remain united and attached to a pedicel longer than the fruit. Each mericap possesses five ridges, rough to touch due to presence of short, stout hairs

29. crossed by the cells of the endocarp aleurone grains
The powder is greenish-yellow or brownish-green.
The powder have strong aromatic agreeable characteristic taste and sweet strongly aromatic taste shows the following
characters:
fragments of branched vitta usually
crossed by the cells of the endocarp
aleurone grains
micro-rosettes of calcium oxalate
non-glandular, unicellular warty hairs
Few fibres and pitted parenchyma

30. Chemical test: Sudan III
Active constituents
1. Volatile oil (2 to 6%) contain anethole
2. fixed oil and protein.
Uses:
Carminative
flavoring agent
Stimulant
Chemical test: Sudan III

31. 4- Cinnamon Bark (Cortex Cinnamomi)
Origin:
Cinnamon is the dried bark of cinnamomum zeylanicum, Family Lauraceae, deprived of most of its cortex known as Ceylon Cinnamon.
Morphology
Cinnamon occurs as quills (single or double compound quills ).1 meter in length.

32. Starch granules and needle crystals of calcium oxalate.
powder:
a reddish brown powder with a
characteristic pleasant and aromatic
odour and taste, showing fragments of:
fibres, they are thick-walled and lignified with lumen and few slit-shaped pits.
thin-walled oil cells
Sclereids, isodiametric, thick wall, lignified, the outer wall is less thickened than the others.
Starch granules and needle crystals of calcium oxalate.
Cork cells are rare

33. Chemical test: Sudan III, Rhuthenium red, FeCl3 and KOH for eugenol
Constituents:
1) volatile oil ( % ) (contains cinnamicaldehyde, eugenol)
2) tannin and mucilage
Uses:
- Carminative
- Antispasmodic
- Mild astingent
- Flavoring agent.
The oil is also a powerful germicide
Chemical test: Sudan III, Rhuthenium red, FeCl3 and KOH for eugenol

34. 5- Cassia Bark (Chinese Cinnamon)
Origin:
It is the dried bark of Cinnamomum cassia,Family Lauraceae.
Morphology:
Chanelled pieces or Single quill up to 40 cm long, earthy brown colour with patches of the thin grayish cork.

35. Powder: differs than cinnamon in:
Odour is less delicate, taste as cinnamon but slightly mucilaginous.
Numerous fragments of cork cells, polygonal with slightly thick wall, contains reddish brown content.
Fibres are shorter and thicker.

36. Volatile oil consisting of Cinnamicaldehyde,no eugenol is found
Active constituents:
Volatile oil consisting of Cinnamicaldehyde,no eugenol is found
Use
The same uses as cinnamon bark
Chemical test
all as cinnamon but negative test for eugenol

37. 7- Mentha Herb (Peppermint) (Herba Mentha Piperitae)نعناع
Origin:
they dried from the leaves and flowering tops of Mentha piperita F. Labiatae

38. Powder
the powder is brownish-green. with an aromatic characteristic odour and an aromatic taste followed by a sensation of cold in the mouth. It is characterized microscopically by the presence
of fragments of:
cells of the epidermis having wavy
walls and diacytic stomata 
Glandular labiaceous hair, unicellular base
with multicellular head composed of 8-16 radiating cells
Non-glandular hairs.
Different types of xylem vessels,
fibres and wood parenchyma.
Calcium oxalate crystals are absent

39. Chemical test: Sudan III
Active constituents
Volatile oil : chief components are menthol 
Tannin
Uses:
car­minative and flavoring agent.
inflammation of the mouth and pharynx (oral preparations)
Menthol is used in pharmaceutical preparations as local antipruritic, counter irritant and antiseptic.
Recently the oil is used for treatment of colitis.
Chemical test: Sudan III

40. THE END