1. The Concept of Measurement and Attitude Scales
CHAPTER Eight
Copyright © 2004
John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

2. Learning Objectives
1. To understand the concept of measurement.
2. To understand the four levels of scales and their typical usage.
To explore the concepts of reliability and validity.
To become familiar with the concept of scaling.
To learn about the various types of attitude scales.

3. 6. To examine some basic considerations in selecting a type of scale.
7. To realize the importance of attitude measurement scales in management decision making.

4. The Concept of Measurement and Measurement Scales
To understand the concept of measurement.
Measurement
The process of assigning numbers or labels to objects, persons, states, or events in accordance with specific rules.
Rule
A guide that tells the researcher what to do

5. The Concept of Measurement and Measurement Scales
To understand the four levels of scales and their typical usage.
Nominal Scales
Partitions data into categories that are mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive.
Ordinal Scales
Used strictly to indicate rank order.

6. The Concept of Measurement and Measurement Scales
To understand the four levels of scales and their typical usage.
Interval Scales
Contains all the features of ordinal scales
Added dimension that the intervals between the data points on the scale are equal.
Ratio Scales
All powers of those mentioned as well as a meaningful absolute zero or origin.

7. The Concept of Measurement and Measurement Scales
To explore the concepts of reliability and validity.
Evaluating the Reliability and Validity of Measurement
Sources of Measurement Differences
M = A + E
where: M = measurement
A = accuracy
E = error: random or systematic
1. A true difference in the characteristic being measured.
2. Differences due to stable characteristics of individual respondents.

8. Step Six: Evaluate the Reliability and Validity of the Measurement
To explore the concepts of reliability and validity.
3. Differences due to short-term personal factors.
4. Differences caused by situational factors.
5. Differences resulting from variations in administering the survey.
6. Differences due to the sampling of items included in the questionnaire.
7. Differences due to a lack of clarity in the measurement instrument
8. Differences due to mechanical or instrument factors.

9. Step Six: Evaluate the Reliability and Validity of the Measurement
To explore the concepts of reliability and validity.
Reliability
Consistent results over time.
Measures are free from random error.
Test-Retest Reliability
Obtained by repeating the measurement using the same instrument under as nearly the same conditions as possible.
Stability:
Few differences in scores are found between the first and second tests.

10. Step Six: Evaluate the Reliability and Validity of the Measurement
To explore the concepts of reliability and validity.
Equivalent Form Reliability
Avoids the test-retest by creating equivalent forms of measurement instrument.
Determined by measuring the correlation of the scores on the two instruments.
Internal Consistency Reliability
Assesses the ability to produce the similar results using different samples to measure a phenomenon.

11. Step Six: Evaluate the Reliability and Validity of the Measurement
To explore the concepts of reliability and validity.
Validity
Addresses the issue of whether what we tried to measure was actually measured.
Face Validity
Content Validity
Criterion-Related Validity
Predictive Validity
Concurrent Validity

12. Step Six: Evaluate the Reliability and Validity of the Measurement
To explore the concepts of reliability and validity.
Construct Validity
Convergent Validity
Discriminate Validity
Relating the Measures to Assess Validity
All types of validity are interrelated in both theory and practice.

13. Step Six: Evaluate the Reliability and Validity of the Measurement
To explore the concepts of reliability and validity.
Reliability and Validity --- A Concluding Comment
See Figure next slide
Situation 1: The lack of consistency means there is no reliability
Situation 2: High reliability, but lacks validity
Situation 3: Reliable, consistent, and valid

14. Figure 8.1
Illustrations of Possible Reliability and Validity Situations in Measurement
Situation 1
Situation 2
Situation 3
Neither Reliable
nor Valid
Highly Reliable
nor Not Valid
Highly Reliable
and Valid

15. Attitude Measurement Scales
To become familiar with the concept of scaling.
Scaling Defined
Procedures for attempting to determine quantitative measures of subjective and sometimes abstract concepts.
Unidimensional scaling: one attribute
Multidimensional scaling: several dimensions

16. Attitudes, Behavior, and Marketing Effectiveness
To understand the linkage among attitudes, behavior and marketing effectiveness.
Attitude
An enduring organization of motivational, emotional, perceptual, and cognitive processes with respect to some aspect of a person’s environment.

17. Attitude Measurement Scales
To become familiar with the concept of scaling.
Graphic Rating Scales
A graphic continuum typically anchored by two extremes
Easily constructed and simple to use.
Ability to discern fine distinctions
Itemized Rating Scales
Respondents must select from a limited number of ordered categories rather than placing a check mark on a continuous scale.

18. Figure 8.2 Three Types of Rationing Scales
Uncomfortable
Scale A
Comfortable
Uncomfortable
Scale B
Comfortable 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
100
Neutral

19. Figure 8.3 Three Types of Rationing Scales
Scale C 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Very
very
Uncomfortable
Very
very
Comfortable

20. Attitude Measurement Scales
To learn about various types of attitude scales.
Rank Order Scale
Respondent judges one item against another.
Q-Sorting
A sophisticated form form of rank ordering.
A set of objects is given to an individual to sort into piles to specified rating categories

21. Attitude Measurement Scales
To learn about the various types of attitude scales.
Paired Comparison Scales
Asks a respondent to pick one of two objects from a set based upon some stated criteria.
The respondent makes a series of paired judgements between objects.
Constant Sum Scales
Requires the respondent to divide a given number of points, typically 100, among two or more attributes based on the importance to the person.

22. Attitude Measurement Scales
To learn about the various types of attitude scales.
The Semantic Differential
Begins with the determination of a concept to be rated.
The researcher selects opposite pairs of words or phrases that describe the object
Respondents rate on a scale.
The mean is computed and plotted as a profile or image.

23. Attitude Measurement Scales
To learn about the various types of attitude scales.
Stapel Scale
Designed to measure both the direction and intensity of attitudes simultaneously.
Likert Scales
A series of statements that express either a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the concept under study.
The respondent is asked the level of agreement or disagreement with each statement.

24. Attitude Measurement Scales
To learn about the various types of attitude measurement scales.
Each respondent is given a numerical score to reflect how favorable or unfavorable her attitude is toward each statement.
The scores are then totaled to measure the respondent’s attitude.
Purchase Intent Scales
During new product development: provides a rough idea of demand.
During product development: demand estimates are refined.
Final version: tested in homes

25. Considerations in Selecting a Scale
To examine some basic considerations in selecting a type of scale.
Some Basic Considerations When Selecting a Scale
Type of Scale: Selecting a Rating, Ranking, Sorting, or Purchase Intent Scale
Balanced Versus Nonbalanced Alternatives
Number of Scale Categories: odd or even number
Forced Verses Nonforced Choice

26. Enhancing the Value of Attitude Measures for Management Decision Making
To understand the importance of attitude scales in management decision making.
Direct Questioning
Ask consumers directly what factors they consider important in a purchasing decision.
Respondents are asked to state their reasons for preferring one product or brand to another.
Or, to rate their “ideal brand” for a given product in terms of several product attributes so that an ideal profile can be constructed.

27. Enhancing the Value of Attitude Measures for Management Decision Making
To understand the linkage between attitudes and marketing effectiveness.
Dual Questioning
Involves asking two questions concerning each product attribute that might be determinant.
Consumers are first asked directly what factors they consider important in a purchasing decision, and how they perceive these factors.

28. Enhancing the Value of Attitude Measures for Management Decision Making
To realize the importance of attitude scales in management decision making.
Indirect Questioning
Any interviewing approach that does not directly ask respondents to indicate the reasons why they bought the product or service.
Observation
Shoppers are observed
Detailed reports are recorded of movements and statements when interacting with a product
Conclusions are drawn

29. SUMMARY
The Concept of Measurement and Measurement Scales
Four basic levels of measurement
Concepts of Reliability and Validity
Three ways to test assess reliability

30. SUMMARY
Attitudes, Behavior, and Marketing Effectiveness
Concept of Scaling and various types of scales
Considerations in selecting a type of scale
Enhancing the Value of Attitude Measures for Management Decision Making

31. The End
Copyright © 2004 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.