1. English phonetics & Phonology
Anisa Larassati, M.Ling /

2. PRELIMINARIES TO PHONOLOGY

3. PRELIMINARIES TO PHONOLOGY
Phonology is the study of the sounds used in languages; the way the pattern with respect to each other, the way they are used to make up words and phrases, and changes they undergo.

4. THE NATURE OF PHONOLOGY
Phonetics and Phonology
The study of speech sounds is partitioned between 2 distinct but related disciplines, phonetics and phonology.
Phonological analyses have to be grounded in phonetic.

5. THE NATURE OF PHONOLOGY CON’T
Phonetics is essentially the study of physical aspects of speech. This means the acoustic bases of speech (linked most closely with speech perception) and the physiological bases of speech (linked most closely with speech production).
Phonology is concerned with the linguistics patterning of sounds in human langauges. This means phonologies will be interested in all those aspects of sound production and perception which can be controlled by a mature native speaker in order to achieve a particluar linguistics effect.

6. The Nature of Phonology Con’t
It also means that phonologists are concerned with those abstract patterns in the sound systems of languages that have to be learned by a child (or indeed adult) acquiring the language.
In this respect, phonology is concerned with something pychological, mental, or in contemporary terms cognitive.

7. PHONEMES & ALLOPHONES

8. ALLOPHONES
Allophone is the different phones that are the realization of a phoneme.
An allophone is therefore a predictable phonetic variant of a phoneme.
In English, each vowel phoneme has both oral and nasalized allophone.
The choice of the allophone is not random or haphazard; it is rule-governed.

9. ALLOPHONES (CONTINUED)
A phoneme is a structural element in the sound system of a language.
Allopones are realizations of a single structural element in the sound system of a language.
Allophones of a given phoneme cannot create different words, so we say the are noncontrastive (they do not contrast meanings).
Slanted lines / / are used to enclose phonemes, square brackets [ ] to enclose allophones.
Other examples of allophones are
/t/  [t] []
/r/

10. ALLOPHONES (CONT’D)
The “same sound” can have more than one pronunciation.
Example, these two p sounds which occur in different positions within words:
Pill [phIl] Spill [spIl]
Poker [phok()] Sprint [sp(r)Int]
Plate [phlet] Spine [spʌɪn]
In these example, aspirated [ph] occurs only at the beginning of words, an unaspirated [p] occurs only after [s].
When you have two sounds and neither can occur where the other one occurs in a word, we say they are in complementary distribution.
We conclude that [ph] and [p] are not distinctive sounds in English words. Instead, they constitute a single unit of the English sound system; they are called allophones of a single phoneme. In this case, allophones of the phoneme /p/

11. DISTRIBUTION OF ALLOPHONES
Particular allophones are determined by where they occur.
Example allophones of /p/ in English words
Column A and B demonstrate that /p/ is aspirated in word initially wether it appears in a stressed or unstressed syllable.
In column C, aspirathed [ph] introduces the second syllable, which carries primary stress in each case.
Thus aspirated [ph] occurs not only word initially, but also word internally when it introduces a stressed syllable.
Column D demonstrate that unaspirated [p] occurs word internally when introducing unstressed syllables. A B C D
[ph]
[p]
pédigree
petúnia
empórium
rápid
pérsonal
Patérnal
compúter
émpathy
pérsecute
Península
rapídograph
Competítion
pílgrimage
Pecúliar
compétitive
Computátional

12. DISTRIBUTION

13. CONTRASTIVE DISTRIBUTION
Example: Par [phar] Tar [thar]
pill [pIl] bill [bIl]
The difference between them causes different in meanings
They appear in minimal pairs
They are in overlapping distribution (they can occur in the same position)
So they are allophones of different phonemes

14. COMPLEMENTARY DISTRIBUTION
When the allophones of a phoneme are in complementary distribution, they never occur in identical environments.
Example : pill [phIl] spill [spIl]

15. FREE VARIATION
Besides the aspirated and unaspirated allophones of /p/, there is a third voiceless bilabial stop in English, which can occur in a word like mop.
In the word mop, the lips may remain close so that the /p/ sound is not released. We represent this allophone as [p]. In this case, we don’t have complementary distribution because both unaspirated [p] and unreleased [p] can occur in the same position (word FINALLY).
When two sounds can occur in the same position in a word but do not contrast (without creating different words) those sounds are said to occur in free variation.

16. PHONOLOGICAL RULES
Two sounds whose distribution with respect to one another is predictable constitute allophones of a single phoneme
Their distribution is describable by a general rule
Phonological rules have this general form:
A B / C____D
“A becomes B in the environment following C and preceding D”
“A becomes B following C and preceding D”
A, B, C, and D are generally specified in terms of phonological features.
In cases where it is unnecessary to specify both C and D, one of them will be missing.
Examples of phonological rules in English:
Nasalization rule
Vowel nasal / _____ nasal
“Vowels are nasalized when they precede nasal sounds.”

17. GENERALIZING PHONOLOGICAL RULES
Aspiration rule for /p/:
Voiceless
Bilabial aspirated / word initially and initially in stressed syllables
Stop
Aspiration rule for /t/:
Alveolar aspirated / word initially and initially in stressed syllables
Aspiration rule for /k/:
velar aspirated / word initially and initially in stressed syllables

18. GENERALIZING PHONOLOGICAL RULES
Because these three rules exhaust the list of voiceless stops in English, they can be captured in a single rule of greater generality covering /p/, /t/, /k/, as follows:
For / p t k/
Voiceless aspirated / word initially and initially in stressed syllables
Stop
This rule leaves the place of articulation unspecified. Thus, it will apply to all voiceless stops irrespective of their place of articulation.
The more general a rule is, the simpler it is to state it using phonetic feature notation.

19. GENERALIZING PHONOLOGICAL RULES
There are 3 Basic Phonological Rules in English:
Words which in their singular form end in these 5 voiceless consonant sounds /p/, /t/, /k/, /f/, and the voiceless // becomes plural with an added {s}. For examples:
lip – lips /lIps/
Cape – capes /kayps/
Coat – coats /kohts/
Walk – walks /wawks/
Laugh – laughs /lafs/

20. GENERALIZING PHONOLOGICAL RULES
Words which in their singular form end in these voiced consonants sound /b/, /d/, /g/, /v/, the voiced /th /, /l/, /m/, /n/, /ng/, /r/, or ended in vowel or diphthong sounds become plural with an added /z/ sound. For examples:
Globe – globes /ɡləʊb/
Ride – rides /rʌɪd/
Leg – legs /lɛɡ/
Song – songs /sɒŋ/

21. Words which in their singular form end in these other consonant sounds /z/, /s/, /sh/, /zh/, /ch/, and /j/ have a special plural ending which requires another syllable and which can either be said as /iz/. For example:
Glass – glasses /ˈɡlɑːsɪz/
Face – faces /feɪsIz/
Breeze – breezes /briːziz/

22. Phonological Rules Con’t
Verbs endings in ed are pronounced:
/d/ after a vowel or voiced consonants
played /pleId/
Cleaned /kli:nd/
Snowed /snəud/
Closed /kləusd/
Filled /fi:ld/
Stayed /stəId/

23. Phonological Rules Con’t
/t/ after an voiceless consonants
Ex:
Brushed /brʌ∫t/
Laughed /lɑːft/
Pushed /pu∫t/
Watched /wɒtt/
Danced /dɑ:nst/
Walked /wɔːkt/

24. Phonological Rules Cont’d
/id/ after the sounds /t/ and /d/
Examples:
Waited /weItid/
Painted /peIntid/
Shouted /∫autid/
Wanted /wɒntid/
Landed /lndid/
Departed /dIpɑːtid

25. Types of Phonological Rules
Assimilation: when a sound changes one of its features to be more similar to an adjacent sound. This is the kind of rule that occurs in the English plural rule described above-the –s becomes voiced or voiceless depending on whether or not the preceding consonant is voiced.

26. GENERALIZING PHONOLOGICAL RULES
Dissimilation: when a sound changes one of its features to become less similar to an Adjacent sound, usually to make the two sounds more distinguishable. This types of rules is often seen among people speaking a language that is not their native language, where the sound contrasts may be difficult.
Insertion: when an extra sound is added between two others. This also occurs in the English plural rule: when the plural morpheme –s is added to “bus”, “bus-s” would be unpronounceable, so a short vowel (the schwa, [ə]) is inserted between the two {s}s.

27. GENERALIZING PHONOLOGICAL RULES
Deletion: when a sound, such as a stressless syllable or weak consonant, is not pronounced. For example: most American English speakers do not pronounced the {d} in “handbag”.

28. SYLLABLE
Syllable is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds. for example: the word water is composed by two syllables: wa and ter
A syllable is typically made up of a syllable nucleus (most often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (typically consonants).
Syllables are often considered the phonological “building blocks” of words.
They can influence the rhythm of a language, its prosody, its poetic meter, its stress patterns, etc.
The general term for the type of constraint which governs the possible sequences of sounds is phonotactic constrain ‘the way in which sounds are arranged or ordered.’

29. Syllable Categorizes
Monosyllable is a word that consists of a single syllable.
for example: cat, dog, girl, boy, and so forth
2. Disyllable is a word consisting of 2 syllables.
for example: monkey, donkey, beauty
3. Trisyllable ( the edjective form is trisyllabic) is a word consisting of 3 sillables.
for example: indigent, beautiful
4. Polisyllable is a word consisting more than 3 syllables.
for example: itelligence, criminalize, cultivable, culmination

30. The Syllable Structure
The general structure of a syllable consists of the following:
Onset: obligatory in some languages, optional or even restricted in others.
for example: in the word cap, the letter c as the initial sound in that word is called as onset.
2. Rime is divided into 2 categorises. Those are Nucleus and Coda

31. Nucleus (obligatory in all languages)
in phonetic or phonology, the nucleus (sometimes called peak) is the central part of the syllable, most commonly a vowel.
In addition to a nucleus, a syllable may begin with an onset and end with a coda.
But in most languages the only part of a syllable that ismandatory is the nucleus. The nucleus and coda form the rime of the syllable.

32. Diphthongs and triphthongs can also serve the nuclues.
There are 2 types of Syllables Nucleus:
Light Syllables is syllables with short vowels as nuclei
Heavy Syllable is syllables with long vowels, diphthongs, or triphthongs as nuclei
The example of Nucleus
Cat /kæt/ the nucleus is æ
Bed /bed/ the nucleus is e
Ode /oUd/ the nucleus is oU

33. Sonorant consonants such as liquids ( such as /r/ and /I/) and nasals ( such as /m/ and /n/) can serve as the nucleus if there is no vowel.
2. Coda (optional in some languages, highly restricted or prohibated in others)
In phonology, a syllable coda comprises the consonant sounds of a syllable that follow the nucleus, which is usually a vowel.
The combination of nucleus and a coda is called: Rime

34. A coda is not required in syllables.
Here are some examples of single-syllable words with codas
An : coda = /n/
Cup : coda= /p/
Tall : coda= /l/
Milk : coda=/lk/
Tints : coda= /nts/
Fifths : coda= /fths/
Sixths : coda= /ksðs/
Twelfths : coda= /lfðs/

35. the following single-syllable word end in a nucleus and do not have a coda:
Glue
Pie
Though
Boy

36. English Stress and Length Pattern
Stress is meant the degree of force or loudness with which a syllable is pronounced so as to give it prominence.
Since syllable are hard to define, it may be said that a vowel sounds like a,i,u,e,o is the nucleus of a syllable in English.

37. The physiological feature of a syllable is that it is pronounced with one single impulse of breath.
The degrees of stress can be observed in English:
Strong or primary stress (‘) ex: ‘ago, ‘foster
Medium or secondary stress (,) ex: ,pre’heat
Weak stress (left unmarked)

38. Word stress
Word stress is your magic key to understanding spoken English. Native speakers of English use word stress naturally. Word stress is so natural for them that they don't even know they use it. Non-native speakers who speak English to native speakers without using word stress, encounter two problems:
They find it difficult to understand native speakers, especially those speaking fast.
The native speakers may find it difficult to understand them.

39. The distribution of stress in an English word cannot be predictied
The distribution of stress in an English word cannot be predictied. This means that each word has its own stress-pattern, which should, therefore be learned together with its meaning.
It is advisable to consult a dictionary in case of doubt.
It is very common for English words and their derivatives to have different stress patterns; for example: prep’are, pre’par’ation, d’emocrat, determin’ation, ‘atom

41. Rules of Word Stress
Core Vocabulary: many ‘everyday’ nouns and adjectives of two-syllable length are stressed on the first syllable. Example: SISter, BROther, Mother, WAter, PAper, TAble, COFfee, LOvely etc.
Prefixes and Suffixes: these are not usually stressed in English. Consider: QUIetly, oRIGinally, deFECtive, and so on. (note the exceptions, though, among prefixes, like Bicycle and DISlocate.)

42. 3. Compound words: words formed from a combination of two words tend to be stressed on the first element. Examples are: POSTman, NWESpaper, TEApot, and CROSSword. 4. Words having a dual role: in the case of words which can be used as either a noun or a verb, the noun will tend to be stressed on the first syllable ( in line with the ‘core vocabulary’ rule above) and the verb on the last syllable (in line with the ‘prefix rule’). Examples are Import (n), imPORT (v) Rebel (n), reBEL (v) and Increase (n), InCREASE (v)

43. Sentence Stress
The three degree of stress are also found in phrases or sentences. A word cosisting of three or more syllables may have the same stress-pattern as a phrase or sentence consistig of the same numbe of syllables.
For example:
With pleasure
Without me
Clandestine

44. Sentence Stress
When words are arranged in a sentence, they usually mantain their own stress pattern. However, only one of them gets the primary stress. This kind of stress is called sentence stress or meaningful stress.
The placement of sentence stress may shift from one word to another in the same sentence depending on the intention of the speaker
For example:

45. Sentence Stress
This is my hóuse : primary stress on ‘house’, this is the normal way of saying the sentence.
This is mý house : primary stress on ‘my’, to emphize the possessor; the implication is that it is not your house, or his house, but my house.
This iś my house : primary stress on the word ‘is’ to emphasize the affirmative element of the statement; the implication is ‘ it is not a lie; this house does belong to me’.
Thís is my house : primary stress on ‘this’; the implication is ‘it is this house that belongs to me, and not that house’.

46. Length
The term ‘length’ here means the period of time during which a sound is produced in a given utterance.
When the length of sound is actually measured in terms of units of time such as second or tenths of seonds, for instance, the length of /a:/ in /fa:ðз/ it is called the relative length of that sound.

47. English Intonation Patterns
Intonation refers to the way the voice goes up and down in pitch when we are speaking.
It is a fundamental part of the way we express our own thoughts and it enables us to understand those of others.
It is an aspect of language that we are very sensitive to, but mostly at an unconscious level.

48. INTONATION Intonation can be grouped into the following:
High-low Falling Intonation (31 #) or 231);
Rising Intonation (23//)
High-Normal Sustained Intonation (32 /)

49. INTONATION High-low Falling Intonation
the high-low falling intonation, or just called the falling intonation, is used e.g orders, decided statememts, prohibitions, and question-word questions. For example:
Order : come here, be a good boy
Calls: Hey, John; Hello, there; I say
Exclamations: Good Lord!; how beautiful
Decided/final statement:
The sun sets in the west
That is the one I want

50. Intonation Cont’d Question-word-questions: Rising Intonation
What is your name?
How much money do you need?
Which student plays piano well?
Rising Intonation
rising intonation is used in yes/no questions, polite request, statements implying concern, sorrow, apology or other emotions, or other statements of less definite type. For example:

51. Intonation Cont’d Yes/no questions:
Shall I open the door?
Have you ever been to USA?
Is your father a teacher?
Polite request: please sit down, come again soon, see you this afternoon, keep on trying.
Miscellaneous Emotional statements:
don’t trouble
Don’t say anything

52. intonation High-normal Sustained Intonation
the use of this intonation pattern implies non-finality of an utterance . The speaker and hearer expect some continuation of the utterance. Therefore, this intonation is normally used in enumeration or in counting and is concluded by a falling intonation.
For example:
On the mainland we visited Los Angeles, Houston, New Orleans, and Texas.
Count from one to five, one, two, three, four, an five