1. the meniscus
Always measure using the lowest part of the curve (the meniscus)

2. BEAKERS
Measured in ml

3. Graduated Cylinders
Measured in ml

4. Pipette
Measures in microliters

5. Disposable Pipette

6. Best fit line

7. twitch
A brief muscular contraction resulting from a sudden spontaneous impulse in a nerve supplying a group of muscle fibers.

10. MYOGRAM

11. The Cell Cycle The Cell Cycle Consists of 2 MAIN PHASES 1) INTERPHASE
2) MITOSIS

12. INTERPHASE Interphase is subdivided into 3 phases: Gap 1 (G1)
S-Phase (or synthesis phase)
Gap 2 (G2)
INTERPHASE

13. INTERPHASE - Gap 1 (G1) Interphase is subdivided into 3 phases:
Gap 1 (G1) - ​G1, is where the cell cycle BEGINS! It is a period of rapid growth of the cell. Here, the cell duplicates organelles and proteins to get ready for the next steps of the cell cycle!

14. S-Phase (or synthesis phase) -
INTERPHASE
Interphase is subdivided into 3 phases:
S-Phase (or synthesis phase) - 
S-Phase, is where the genetic material gets duplicated or copied.

15. INTERPHASE Gap 2 (G2)
Interphase is subdivided into 3 phases:
Gap 2 (G2)-  G2, is the final stage before mitosis begins. The cell grows even larger and makes the final proteins and organelles it needs to begin mitosis! After G2, the process of mitosis will begin. 

16. SPECTROPHOTOMETER
A spectrophotometer is an instrument that measures the amount of photons (the intensity of light) absorbed after it passes through sample solution.
With the spectrophotometer, the amount of a known chemical substance (concentrations) can also be determined by measuring ABSORBANCE. 

17. SPECTROPHOTOMETER
Substances with higher ABSORBANCE will have a higher concentration. 

18. Mitosis Mitosis is separated into 4 phases. 1) Prophase 2) Metaphase
3) Anaphase
4) Telophase

19. Karyotyping
Karyotyping is the process of pairing and ordering all the chromosomes of an organism, thus providing a genome-wide snapshot of an individual's chromosomes.
Karyotypes are prepared using standardized staining procedures that reveal characteristic structural features for each chromosome.

20. Nondisjunction
Nondisjunction occurs in cell division when chromosomes do not divide properly.
The resulting daughter cells have an incorrect number of chromosomes;
may have too many
may have too few
This causes problems in cell function because a cell cannot function normally without the right amount of chromosomes.

24. NONDISJUNCTION
Meiosis I 
Meiosis II 
The right image at the green arrow is nondisjunction taking place during meiosis I.
The left image at the blue arrow is nondisjunction taking place during meiosis II.

25. PRIMARY NONDISJUNCTION
Primary nondisjunction occurs during meiosis I and the result is both members of a homologous pair go into the same daughter cell.
This has the eggs have one more or one less number of chromosomes.
Once the sperm fertilizes the egg then there is an abnormal number of chromosomes.
PRIMARY NONDISJUNCTION
takes place during meiosis I.
Meiosis I 
Meiosis II 

26. Secondary nondisjunction
Secondary nondisjunction happens during meiosis II
This results when the sister chromatids fail to separate, ending up with both daughter chromosomes going into the same gamete.
During this, one egg will have one more or one less chromosome.
SECONDARY NONDISJUNCTION takes place during meiosis II.
Meiosis I 
Meiosis II 

27. Secondary nondisjunction
Once these eggs are fertilized there will be two zygotes with an abnormal number of chromosomes.
It is less harmful to have secondary nondisjunction since you can still have two normal gametes while in primary nondisjunction there are no normal gametes.
SECONDARY NONDISJUNCTION
takes place during meiosis II.
Meiosis I 
Meiosis II 

28. Chromosomal Disorders

29. Normal Karyotype

30. Aneuploidy
The most common type of chromosomal abnormality is known as aneuploidy.
Aneuploidy is a condition in which an individual has an abnormal chromosome number due to either having an extra chromosome (trisomy) or a missing chromosome (monosomy).
trisomy (three copies of a chromosome)
monosomy (single copy of a chromosome)

31. Autosomal trisomy
The term autosomal trisomy means that a chromosome other than the sex chromosomes X and Y is present in 3 copies instead of the normal number of 2 in diploid cells.

32. Down syndrome (trisomy 21)
Down syndrome, a.k.a. trisomy 21 is a genetic condition caused by an extra chromosome 21.
Chromosome 21 has 3 copies
Most cases of trisomy of chromosome 21 are caused by a nondisjunction event during meiosis I

33. Turner syndrome
The only known survivable monosomy in humans is Turner syndrome
The affected individual is monosomic for the X chromosome.
Karyotype of X monosomy (Turner syndrome) This condition is characterized by the presence of only one X chromosome and no Y chromosome

34. Sex chromosome aneuploidy
The term sex chromosome aneuploidy summarizes conditions with an abnormal number of sex chromosomes, i.e. other than XX (female) or XY (male).

35. Klinefelter syndrome (47, XXY)
Klinefelter syndrome is the most common sex chromosome aneuploidy in humans.
Most cases are caused by nondisjunction errors in meiosis I.
individuals with this syndrome have an extra X chromosome resulting in the karyotype XXY.

38. BEST FIT (TREND) LINE

41. THE BIURET REAGENT TEST FOR PROTEIN
Biuret reagent results:  The Biuret reagent used to test for protein is blue in color.
​If there is no change in color (solution remains blue) then protein is not present.
​If there is a change in color from blue to violet (deep purple) then protein is present.
​If there is a change in color from blue to pink then protein is present, but not as much as in the purple sample.

43. Diffusion and osmosis
Substances will always go from higher concentration to lower concentration. This is diffusion.

44. Diffusion and osmosis
When the substance diffusing is WATER, we call this osmosis.

45. Isotonic Solution If a solution is isotonic...
The concentration of solutes outside is equal to the concentration of solutes inside the cell
There will be NO NET movement of water
The cell will NOT lose or gain water
Our bodies maintain a relatively isotonic environment for the cells.

46. Hypotonic Solution
If a solution is hypotonic...
The concentration of solutes outside is less than it is inside the cell
The cell will gain water
Water goes inside of the cell, so the weight of the cell increases, and eventually bursts.

47. The cell will lose water
Hypertonic Solution
If a solution is hypertonic...
The concentration of solutes outside is greater than it is inside the cell
The cell will lose water
Water comes out of the cell, so the cell loses weigh and eventually the cell shrivels.

48. Digestive Enzymes Four of the enzymes have special importance in
digestion of food by humans.
Amylase from our salivary glands and pancreas digests starch to maltose in our mouth and small intestine.
Lipase from the pancreas digests lipids to fatty acids and glycerol in our small intestine.
Pepsin is a protease that begins digestion of proteins, breaking them into peptides and amino acids. Pepsinogen, is secreted by gastric glands of the stomach into the stomach. There, in the acid environment of the stomach, pepsinogen is converted into pepsin.
Trypsin is a protease secreted into the small intestine by the pancreas. As pepsin, trypsin digests proteins into peptides and amino acids and is made and secreted in an inactive form, trypsinogen.

50. AMYLASE

51. the hydrolysis of starch to maltose by salivary amylase. 

53. Iodine indicator (IKI or Lugol's Reagent) RESULTS
BLACK = NO DIGESTION OCCURRED / STARCH IS STILL PRESENT BROWN = PARTIAL DIGESTION OCCURRED / SOME STARCH IS STILL PRESENT YELLOW/TAN = DIGESTION OCCURRED / NO STARCH IS PRESENT

54. Iodine indicator (IKI or Lugol's Reagent) RESULTS
If starch is present, the mixture will change from its original yellowish color to a blue-black color. This color change indicates a strong presence of starch indicating NO DIGESTION.

55. Iodine indicator (IKI or Lugol's Reagent) RESULTS
If starch is not present, the mixture will NOT change from its original yellowish color. This sample would be NEGATIVE for STARCH, indicating COMPLETE DIGESTION.

56. Iodine indicator (IKI or Lugol's Reagent) RESULTS
If starch is present in small quantities, the mixture will change from its original yellowish color to a brown or darker tan color. This sample would be POSITIVE for STARCH, indicating PARTIAL or INCOMPLETE DIGESTION.

57. Lugol’s Summary
YELLOW/TAN = DIGESTION OCCURRED / NO STARCH IS ​PRESENT
BROWN = PARTIAL DIGESTION OCCURRED / SOME STARCH IS STILL PRESENT
BLACK = NO DIGESTION OCCURRED / STARCH IS STILL PRESENT

58. Benedict's Reagent Test for the Presence of SIMPLE SUGARS (monosaccharides and disaccharides)

59. Protein Digestion

60. Protein Digestion
Protein Digestion is a Two-Step Process STEP ONE: Break peptide bonds of proteins to yield smaller polypeptides. 
In stomach: pepsin
In intestine: pancreatic enzymes (trypsin, chymotrypsin)
  STEP TWO: break small polypeptides into single amino acids. 
​Protein digestion mainly occurs in the small intestine.

61. You can use Biuret reagent to determine the relative number to peptide bonds in the solution; a dark purple color indicates the presence of more peptide bonds and a light purple color indicates the presence of less peptide bonds.

62. Pepsin firsts digest proteins into peptides, and then it will eventually turn peptides into amino acids. ... The reagent that detects if proteins are present is the blue colored “Biuret  reagent”.
When it combines with the peptide bonds found in protein and peptides, it changes to purple.

64. Bile salts contain the enzyme lipase.
Lipase will Emulsify large fat globules into tiny fat droplets.
 Lipase is a water soluble enzyme that cannot penetrate to the inner regions of the fat droplet. Instead, lipase will act on the surface of the fat droplets.
When the larger fat globules are turned into smaller spheres, these small sphere have a higher surface-to-volume ratio, which allows lipase to effectively break down fats into its simplest components. 

65. Regulation of Blood Glucose

66. Regulation of Blood Glucose
 Insulin is a hormone released by the body in response to high blood glucose levels. 
When insulin is introduced into the bloodstream, blood glucose levels fall as a response.  
 When glucose is ingested, blood glucose levels increase.
This increase triggers the release of insulin from eyelet cells of the pancreas.
When this insulin reaches the bloodstream, blood glucose levels decrease back to normal.
Regulation of Blood Glucose

67. Diabetes mellitus
Diabetes mellitus type 1 results when the beta cells of the pancreas fail to produce enough insulin therefore resulting in high plasma glucose levels. 
Diabetes mellitus type 2 results when the cells of the body do not respond to insulin properly (insulin resistance) therefore resulting in high plasma glucose levels.

68. Fasting blood glucose levels
NORMAL - fasting blood glucose level is between 70 and 100mg/dL.
PRE-DIABETES - fasting blood glucose level is between 100 and 125 mg/dL.
DIABETES - fasting blood glucose level is greater than >125mg/dL.

73. Unfused Tetanus An unfused tetanus is when the muscle fibers do not completely relax before the next stimulus because they are being stimulated at a fast rate; however there is a partial relaxation of the muscle fibers between the twitches.

74. Fused Tetanus Fused tetanus is when there is no relaxation of the muscle fibers between stimuli and it occurs during a high rate of stimulation. A fused tetanic contraction is the strongest single-unit twitch in contraction. It occurs when the contracting tension in the muscle remains constant in a steady state. This is the maximal possible contraction. During tetanic contractions, muscles can shorten, lengthen or remain constant length. 

76. Normal Plantar (Babinski) Reflex IN ADULTS - plantar flexion, curling of the toes. Recorded as a negative Babinski sign.
Abormal Plantar (Babinski) Reflex IN ADULTS - dorsiflexion of the great toe and other toes fan outward. Recorded as a positive Babinski sign. If this is seen in an adult, then they may have damage in the corticospinal tract. ​

77. Normal Plantar (Babinski) Reflex IN INFANT - dorsiflexion of the great toe and other toes fan outward. Recorded as a positive Babinski sign.
Abnormal Plantar (Babinski) Reflex IN INFANT - plantar flexion, curling of the toes. Recorded as a negative Babinski sign.

78. The strength of the twitch response grew stronger as voltage was increased. 

79. Summation of the twitch response (muscle contraction lasting a bit longer than a single twitch) was experienced when using a stimulus frequency of 15 events per second.

80. Incomplete or unfused tetanus (steady contraction with shaking) response was experienced when using a stimulus frequency of 20 events per second.

81. Complete or fused tetanus (steady contraction without shaking) response was experienced when using a stimulus frequency of 25 events per second.