1. Bridges and Barriers in the Development of Faith, Identity, Vocation, and Life Purpose in College Students Katie Byron, Whitney Guthrie, Cindy Miller-Perrin, and Don Thompson Pepperdine University ACSD Annual Conference June 8, 2006

2. The Pepperdine Research Team
Katie Byron
2006 Psychology Graduate
Whitney Guthrie
Dr. Cindy Miller-Perrin
Professor of Psychology
Dr. Don Thompson
Associate Vice President

3. Presentation Overview
Development of faith, identity, and vocation across the undergraduate years
College seniors: Bridges and barriers to life purpose
Opportunities for influence and impact in the college environment

4. Lilly Endowment Sponsored Research at Pepperdine 2002-2006 Summary
Student Development
Faith, Vocation, Identity Surveys & Interviews
Autobiographical Writings
Vocation Discussion Groups
Faculty Development
Vocation Survey
Vocation Workshops
Mission Fulfillment
Life Purpose, Service, Leadership

5. College years are “critical years” in development
Development of Faith, Identity, and Vocation Across the Undergraduate Years
College years are “critical years” in development
College years marked by change in individual self and religious self
It seems that the college experience can play a crucial role in aiding or inhibiting maturation.
For this reason, Parks (2000) referred to the college years as the “critical years” in development.
Past research has indicated that the combination of the impressionability of late adolescence and the conditions of higher education contribute to the college years being an extremely important time of change and development for both the individual self and the religious self (Lee, 2002).
A more detailed explanation for why this time is so crucial in development is that the cognitive and emotional changes that occur during the college years cause students to experience a sense of displacement, confusion, and discomfort (Love and Talbot, 2002). This experience leads students to seek stability and meaning in their lives. There are both healthy and unhealthy ways of responding to this need.
Healthy ways of finding such stability in life occurs through:
the development of critical thinking,
the questioning of authorities,
and the exploration of value-related issues.
However, not having opportunities to grow and explore during this search for meaning can lead students to jump to unexamined views that lead to a narrowness of perspective and a lack of growth.
Some theorists have indicated that the current trend in development is that young adults are not being encouraged to ask big questions that awaken critical thought. But that they are being swept up in assumptions that remain unexamined.

6. Vocational Development
College students consider issues associated with personal identity, faith beliefs, and career options
Higher education should help students discover and pursue their vocational callings
Little empirical work examines the nature and development of vocational calling

7. Research Hypotheses
Vocation is “the place where your deep gladness and the world’s deep hunger meet”
Vocational development is the intersection of faith development and identity development
Faith, identity, and vocational development are not uniform across the college years

8. Method Participants (and Response Rates) from initial sample of 300
Baseline – 113 (38%)
First-Year – 191 (68%)
Sophomore – 111 (64%)
Junior – 132 (83%)
Senior – 114 (70%)
Overall Demographics
61% female; 39% male
Age range years (X= 20.64)
70% White; 7% Latino; 5% Asian; 3% Black; 15% Other
These constructs of identity and faith were studied among 189 students who were in their first year at Pepperdine University.
The participants in this study were all part of the previously mentioned longitudinal study on vocational development sponsored by the Lilly Endowment.
The participants completed an online survey that, amongst other measures, included two measures of identity and two measures of faith.

9. Measures Faith Attitudes and Behaviors
Vocational Discernment and Action
Barriers to Life Purpose

10. Faith Attitudes and Behaviors
Subscales
Sample Items
Strength of Belief
(alpha = .81)
I view myself as a religious person.
I have doubts about whether my religious beliefs are true.
Faith Behavior
(alpha = .88)
How often do you attend religious services?
How often have you read a devotional, religious, or spiritual book in the last year?
Application of Faith
(alpha = .90)
I depend on my faith in God for decision-making and direction.
I try hard to carry my religious beliefs into all other dealings in my life.
The first measure used to asses faith was the faith attitudes survey. This survey was developed particularly for this study. As mentioned before, faith attitudes is defined as the importance of faith to the individual, the individual’s strength of belief, the individual’s life application of faith, and the individual’s understanding of calling. Therefore, the measure consisted of four subscales assessing each of these four domains. Several sample items are given here. For example, two sample items assessing strength of belief were: etc.

11. Vocational Discernment and Action
Subscales
Sample Items
Discernment and Purpose
(alpha = .76)
I have a good sense for my life purpose.
I know of the many ways that I can use my gifts and talents within the context of my professional career.
I am unsure about what God is specifically calling me to do.
Service to Others
(alpha = .68)
I am motivated to choose a career that will enable me to provide some type of service to others.
I feel a deep sense of responsibility for reducing pain and suffering in the world.

12. Vocational Barriers Subscales Personal Barriers Interpersonal Barriers
Barriers to life purpose fulfillment
Personal Barriers
(alpha = .84)
Fear
Emotional Problems
Self-doubt
Lack of motivation
Interpersonal Barriers
(alpha = .86)
A parent
A friend
A boy/girl friend
A teacher or professor
Social and Cultural Barriers
(alpha = .90)
Lack of financial resources
Feeling pressure or a desire to get married
Feeling that my opportunities are limited by the gender stereotypes of society
The second measure used to asses faith was the faith behavior survey. This survey was also developed particularly for this study. As mentioned before, faith behavior is defined as the individual’s public religious activity, private religious activity, and the experience of spiritual feelings. Therefore, the measure consisted of three subscales assessing each of these domains. Again, several sample items are given here. For example, two sample items assessing public religious activity are: etc.

13. Results Faith Development Identity Development
Vocation Discernment and Action
Development of Life Purpose Barriers

14. Strength of Belief, Faith Behavior, and Application of Faith
Strength of Belief varied significantly over time
Faith Behavior varied significantly over time
Application of Faith did not vary significantly over time

15. I believe in God.

16. My faith/religion is NOT very important to me.

17. I continually look for ways to strengthen my faith.

18. Identity Development - Achievement
Achieved Identity status varied significantly over time

19. Identity Development – Moratorium
Moratorium Identity status varied over time, marginally

20. Identity Development - Foreclosure
Foreclosure Identity status varied significantly over time

21. Identity Development - Diffused
Diffused Identity status did not vary significantly over time

22. Vocational Discernment and Action
Vocational Discernment did not vary significantly over time
Vocational Action, as service, did not vary significantly over time

23. I have a good sense of God’s purpose for my life.

24. I am unsure about what God is specifically calling me to do.

25. I am motivated to choose a career that will provide/fulfill…

26. Barriers to Life Purpose
Total Personal Barriers scores varied over time, marginally

27. Emotional problems prevent me from fulfilling my life purpose

28. Selfishness prevents me from fulfilling my life purpose

29. Need for personal control prevents me from fulfilling my life purpose

30. Barriers to Life Purpose
Total Interpersonal Barriers scores did not vary significantly over time

31. Barriers to Life Purpose
Total Social and Cultural Barriers scores did not vary significantly over time

32. Conclusions
College students experience significant developmental variation over time
Strength of faith belief
Faith behavior
Identity development
Foreclosure, Moratorium, Achievement
Personal Barriers

33. Bridges and Barriers in the Development of Faith, Identity, and Life Purpose in College Seniors
The topic I will be investigating is parent-child interactions, and more specifically, the aggressive discipline strategies employed by some parents.
This type of discipline has been shown to be related to several negative outcomes in adulthood like socioemotional problems, cognitive deficits and an increased risk for criminal behavior. The outcome of aggressive discipline that I examined is attitudes toward interpersonal relationships.

34. Emergence of Positive Psychology
Traditionally, the field of psychology has focused on individuals’ maladaptive traits and pathologies
Positive Psychology explores individual health and well-being
Attachment theory is a useful way to conceptualize the relationship between these two constructs. According to this theory, the earliest attachment that is usually formed with parents creates a model that carries in into all future relationships. When aggressive discipline occurs in this first attachment, it disrupt this normal process of trust and relationship development. It can cause maladaptive and dysfunctional interpersonal styles which are carried into future adult relationships.

35. Life Purpose
Life purpose is a popular area of research within Positive Psychology
Life purpose is linked to well-being
Life purpose is a core element in many university mission statements
Attachment theory is a useful way to conceptualize the relationship between these two constructs. According to this theory, the earliest attachment that is usually formed with parents creates a model that carries in into all future relationships. When aggressive discipline occurs in this first attachment, it disrupt this normal process of trust and relationship development. It can cause maladaptive and dysfunctional interpersonal styles which are carried into future adult relationships.

36. What Contributes to Life Purpose?
Faith
Religion is one context in which we encounter commitment to an ultimate concern or purpose
Identity
Our ongoing life narratives allow us to understand who we are and where we belong – i.e. our life purpose
Previous research regarding this relationship between childhood discipline and adult interpersonal relationships has predominantly focused on a single type of abuse usually as sexual abuse, but little has been done on types of abuse that are relevant to discipline and less has been done comparing several types.
Of the research that has been conducted in this area, there is some disagreement. One study found that there are differences in the stability and quality of adult interpersonal relationships between abused and nonabused adults, but this relationship is not dependent on the type of abuse. Another study however, found that victims of different types of abuse experiences different types of maladaptive interpersonal patterns.
Another limitation of the current research on this topic is the varying definitions of interpersonal outcomes. While some studies conceptualize this type of outcome behaviorally (e.g. divorce, walking-out and cohabitation), others define this concept as maladaptive attitudes (e.g. codependence, the desire to be hurt in a relationship, and lack of confidence in relationships)
My work focused on one specific type of interpersonal attitude, attitudes towards marriage.
While one area of the literature aims to understand and describe outcomes of discipline and abuse, another growing area focuses on explaining the range of outcomes experienced. This research attempts to understand situations like

37. Faith and Life Purpose Bridges
Religious conversion
Life purpose evolves following conversion: euphoria, doubt, renewed strength and stability
Core experiences
Experiences of feeling close with God, including the perception that God dwells within, engender a sense of life purpose
Spiritual strivings
Sacred goals that aim for meaningful life objectives, pertaining to a person’s imago dei, contribute to life purpose
Mysticism
Strong emotional religious experience accompanies a strong sense of life purpose
God Control
The degree to which individuals perceive God as being in control of their life can impact life direction or purpose
Recent research has suggested that victims’ interpretations of their maltreatment are able to explain a portion of the variance in outcome.
The definitions that have been used in previous research have been inconsistent and do not address perceptions that are specific to the discipline event, such as the fairness of the event or the reasons why it occurred.
Additionally, most of the work has been done on victims of CSA, which indicates the need for future research that addresses the attributions and perceptions of victims of all ages who have experienced all types of maltreatment, such as aggressive discipline.
Though this line of research is very recent, the work that has been done indicates that perceptions are a significant mediator of discpline and outcome.

38. Identity and Life Purpose Bridges
Developing a sense of identity out of life stories and experiences leads to life meaning and purpose
Identity confusion – caused by lack of goals, based on lack of direction – negatively impacts life purpose
Development of life purpose helps to resolve identity crises

39. Life Purpose Barriers
To date, no studies have addressed factors that inhibit one’s understanding of life purpose
For those who experience discrimination, minority status is negatively related to personal growth
There are many other potential barriers to life purpose such as anxiety, financial circumstances, personality, etc.
4 scales measured the present constructs including:
demographic info, which assessed standard variables (e.g. age, gender, ethnicity, personal marital status, parental marital status, and parental income
Other relevant control variables
Whether they had witnessed verbal or physical aggression between parents, and if so: participants rated the severity from 1(mild) to 5(severe)

40. Hypotheses – Bridges & Barriers to Life Purpose
Faith development and identity achievement positively predict life purpose
Specific barriers examined in the current study negatively predict life purpose
Personality or personal emotions
Views and opinions of others
Social pressures or personal circumstances
Indicate the frequency that the particular strategy occurred when they were about 10 years old – which was used as the time-related anchor.
Also report separate frequencies for each parent, yielding separate scores for mothers and for fathers

41. Participants 89 undergraduates (mean age = 21.53) 60% female, 40% male
67% White, 6% Asian, 6% Latino, 10% Multiracial/Other
64% Protestant, 14% Catholic, 2% Jewish, 1% Hindu, 18% Other/None
All participants were seniors at a Christian university
Students were selected from the 2002 entering class to participate in a longitudinal survey on faith, identity, and vocation. This study included 89 of these participants who responded to two separate surveys given during their senior year
Severe physical violence scale was thrown out because of lack of variability, and the remaining scales

42. Measures & Scales General Life Purpose Scale
Life Purpose Barriers Scale
Identity Scale
Ego-Identity Status
Faith Scales
Faith Maturity
Spiritual Transcendence
Severe physical violence scale was thrown out because of lack of variability, and the remaining scales

43. General Life Purpose Scale
Designed to measure overall sense of life purpose
Sample items
I have a good sense of purpose in life
I have no sense of direction in life
My life is valuable and worthwhile
I am making a contribution to society
Created for the current study
It assesses participants perceptions regarding their childhood experiences with three different discipline types. It does not assess the presence of discipline, but rather the perceptions about its purpose and consequences.
Participants are asked to remember their most salient memory of each type of discipline strategy that is assessed by the CTSPC and the measure is completed separately for each type.

44. General Life Purpose Responses
Created for the current study
It assesses participants perceptions regarding their childhood experiences with three different discipline types. It does not assess the presence of discipline, but rather the perceptions about its purpose and consequences.
Participants are asked to remember their most salient memory of each type of discipline strategy that is assessed by the CTSPC and the measure is completed separately for each type.

45. Life Purpose Barriers Scale
Measures factors that can prevent individuals from fulfilling their life purpose
Yields scores on three subscales:
Personality or personal emotions
Lack of motivation, fear, being uncertain of what God wants
Views and opinions of others
Parents, boyfriend or girlfriend, teachers
Social pressures or personal circumstances
Financial debt, feeling limited by gender stereotypes

46. Life Purpose Barriers Responses

47. Life Purpose Barriers Responses

48. Ego-Identity Status Survey
Classifies subjects into one of four identity groups:
Achievement: exploration and commitment
“It took me a while to figure it out, but now I really know what I want for a career.”
Moratorium: exploration without commitment
“Religion is confusing to me right now. I keep changing my views on what is right and wrong for me.”
Foreclosure: no exploration, but commitment
“My parents decided a long time ago what I should go into for employment and I’m following through with their plans.”
Diffusion: no exploration or commitment
“I haven’t really considered politics. It just doesn’t excite me much.”
Created for the current study
It assesses participants perceptions regarding their childhood experiences with three different discipline types. It does not assess the presence of discipline, but rather the perceptions about its purpose and consequences.
Participants are asked to remember their most salient memory of each type of discipline strategy that is assessed by the CTSPC and the measure is completed separately for each type.

49. Ego-Identity Status Responses
Created for the current study
It assesses participants perceptions regarding their childhood experiences with three different discipline types. It does not assess the presence of discipline, but rather the perceptions about its purpose and consequences.
Participants are asked to remember their most salient memory of each type of discipline strategy that is assessed by the CTSPC and the measure is completed separately for each type.

50. Faith Maturity Scale
Measures values and behavioral manifestations of faith
Sample items
My life is filled with meaning and purpose
I have a real sense that God is guiding me
My faith shapes how I think and act each and every day
I devote time to reading and studying the Bible

51. Faith Maturity Responses

52. Faith Maturity Responses

53. Faith Maturity Responses

54. Spiritual Transcendence Scale
Measures ability to step outside of oneself and immediate surroundings to view life on large scale, yielding three subscales:
Connectedness: assesses participants’ sense of community and relationships with others
I am concerned about those who will come after me in life
Prayer Fulfillment: assesses participants’ prayer or meditation experience
I have experienced deep fulfillment and bliss through my prayers or meditations
Universality: assesses participants’ sense of a greater meaning in life
I believe that death is a doorway to another plane of existence

55. Spiritual Transcendence Responses

56. Additional Results Barrier Gender Differences Faith Gender Differences
Predictors of Life Purpose

57. Gender Differences: Personal Barriers
Females perceive personal barriers to life purpose at higher levels than males

58. Gender Differences: Social Pressure Barriers
Females perceive social pressure barriers to life purpose at higher levels than males

59. Gender Differences: Faith Variables
Females scored significantly higher on Faith Maturity & Spiritual Transcendence

60. Best Predictors of Life Purpose
Faith Maturity
Achieved Identity Status
Personal Barriers
Life Purpose

61. Conclusions
College students experience significant variation in identity, faith, and life purpose development over time
The sophomore year is a particularly critical milestone
Barriers to development differ significantly by gender
Females demonstrate greater faith maturity and spirituality than males
Faith maturity, achieved identity, and personal barriers are optimal predictors of life purpose

62. Lessons & Opportunities for Nurturing Student Development at Christian Universities
Engender faith growth – mentoring, spiritual nourishment, challenges
Promote self-discovery – leading to achieved identity – reflective experiences – summation as well as formation
Respect the barriers
Understand dynamics of gender
Capitalize on opportunities for impact in the sophomore year