1. Lecture 21: Animal physiology
Animal organ System & Homeostasis:
Animal organs are usually composed of more than one cell type.
Each organ typically performs (do) a given function.
The stomach is an organ composed of tissues that aid (help) in the digestion of food as part of the digestive system..
Most organs have functions in only one organ-system.
Organ systems, such as the digestive system, are collections of organs مجموعة الأعضاءthat perform a major function for the organism.

2. Homeostasis: ضبط وتنظيم البيئة الفسيولوجية الداخلية للجسم
Homeostasis: is a term describe the physical and chemical parameters that an organism must maintain to allow proper functioning of its component cells, tissues, organs, and systems.
Enzymes function best when a certain range of temperature and pH, that cells must maintain a balance between having too much or too little water in relation to their external environment.
Our body has a range of environmental (internal & external) parametersمعايير within which it works best.
Multicellular organisms accomplishانجاز homeostasis by having organs and systems that coordinateتنسيق their homeostasis by the help of the nervous system.
Unicellular organisms accomplish homeostasis within a single cell by moving materials into and out of the cell by regulation of the cell membrane and its functioning.

3. Unicellular organisms such as paramecium, can dump wastes يُخرج الفضلات outside the cell by exocytosis الإخراج الخلوي.
Multicellular organisms, such as a human, dump wastes outside cells then, carting away of these wastes outside the body is by both the circulatory الدوريand excretory الإخراجي systems.
Heat control is a major function of homeostatic conditions that involves the skin, muscular and nervous & circulatory systems.
The ultimate (final) control of homeostasis is accomplished by the nervous system (for rapid responses such as quick reflexes) and the endocrine system الغدد الصماء (for longer-term responses, such as maintaining the body levels of calcium).

4. Control Systems of homeostasis الأجهزة التي تتحكم في الثبات الفسيولوجي
Extrinsic control التحكم الخارجي:
Most homeostatic systems are extrinsic: they are controlled from outside the body. For example:
The nervous system:
Depends on sensors مناطق إحساس in the skin or sensory organs to receive stimuli منبهand transmit a message to the spinal cord الحبل الشوكيor brain. Signal is sent to an effectorمستجييب system, such as muscles or glands, that effects the response to the stimulusمحفزات.
The endocrine system:
Involves (include) hormones. Sensors detect a change within the body and send a message to an endocrine effector (parathyroid), which release hormones into the blood when blood mineralsمعادن levels are low resulting in raising the blood minerals levels.
Intrinsic control التحكم الداخلي:
Local controls usually involve only one organ or tissue. When muscles use more O2, and also produce more CO2, intrinsic controls cause dilation of the blood vessels allowing more blood into those active areas of the muscles. Eventually the vessels will return to "normal".

5. Body Systems and Homeostasis
Muscular System: (facilitates movement and locomotion); The muscular system produces body movements and body heat.
Skeletal System: provides support and protection, and attachment points for muscles. The skeletal system provides rigid framework for movement. It supports and protects the body and body parts, produces blood cells, and stores minerals.
Skin الجلد: (the outermost protective layer); It prevents water loss and protect the body from invasion of foreign microorganisms and viruses.
Respiratory System:
Moves O2 from the external environment into the internal environment; also removes CO2. This occurs by exchanging gas between lungs and the blood. It also maintains pH of the blood and facilitates exchange of CO2 and O2.

6. Circulatory System:
Transports O2, CO2, nutrients, waste products, immune components, and hormones via the heart, capillaries, arteries, and veins. The lymphatic system also transports excess fluids to and from circulatory system and transports fat to the heart.
Immune System:
Defends the internal environment from invading microorganisms and viruses. It provides cells that aid in protection of the body from disease by the antigen/antibody response.
Excretory System:
Regulates volume of internal body fluids as well as eliminates metabolic wastes from the internal environment. it removes organic wastes from the blood. These wastes are then removed as urine. It is also responsible for maintaining fluid levels.

7. Nervous System:
Coordinates and controls actions of internal organs and body systems. Memory, learning, and conscious thought are the functions of the nervous system. Maintaining autonomic functions الوظائف الذاتية (اللا إرادية)such as heartbeat, breathing, control of involuntary muscle actions.
Endocrine System:
Works with the nervous system to control the activityالسيطرة على نظام of internal organs. it secretes hormones that regulate body metabolismالتمثيل الغذائي, growth, and reproduction.
Reproductive System:
Is mostly controlled by the endocrine systemالغدد الصماء, and is responsible for survival and perpetuation of the species. Organs of this system produce gametes that combine in the female system to produce the next generation (embryo).

8. Lecture 22: Nutrition التغذية
Nutrition is a process of intake of nutrients المواد الغذائية (like carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals and water) by the organism.

9. Nutrients: المواد الغذائية
There are seven major classes of nutrients: carbohydrates, fats, fiber, minerals, protein, vitamin, and water.
They are classified into two categories:
I)- Macronutrients مغذيات كبيرة: needed in relatively large amounts, such as carbohydrates, fats, fibers, proteins, and water.
II)- Micronutrients مغذيات صغيرة: needed in smaller quantities, such as minerals الأملاح المعدنية and vitamins .

10. The macronutrients (but not fibers and water) provide structural material مواد بنائية for example, lipids from which cell membrane is built.
Some of the structural materials can be used to generate energy internally لتوليد الطاقة داخليا, and measured in kilocalories كيلو كالوري (often called "Calories").
I- Carbohydrates and proteins provide 4 kcal of energy per gram.
II- while fats provide 9 kcal per gram.
Vitamins, minerals, and water do not provide energy.
Fibers (i.e., non-digestible materials such as cellulose), seems to be required, for both mechanical and biochemical reasons.

11. Digestive systems:
1- Beaks: birds eat primarily seeds, nuts, and fruit, using their beaks to open even the toughest seed البذور الجافة.
2- Tongue: is a skeletal muscle on the floor of the mouth that manipulates food for chewing (المضغ) and swallowing (البلع). The underside of the tongue is covered with a smooth mucous membrane غشاء مخاطي .
3- Teeth: (singular, tooth) are small whitish structures found in the jaws (الفكوك) of many vertebrates that are used to chew foodمضغ الطعام .
- Teeth of carnivores are shaped to kill and tear meatتمزق اللحم .
- Teeth of herbivores are made for grinding طحن plant parts.

12. 4- Crop: is a thin-walled expanded portion جزء واسع رفيع الجدارof the alimentary canal used for the storage of food prior to digestion تخزين الطعام قبل الهضم.
5- Gizzard: is a specialized stomach with thickسميك , muscular walls used for grinding up foodطحن الطعام .