1. Research Conference on Religion and Spirituality
VOCATION AS CALLING: THE ROLE OF GENDER IN VOCATIONAL DISCERNMENT AND ACTION AMONG FIRST-YEAR COLLEGE STUDENTS
Cindy Miller-Perrin
Don Thompson
Research Conference on Religion and Spirituality
April 1, 2005

2. Religion and Higher Education
Higher Education traditionally separates academic and religious pursuits.
Commitment to scientific or research-based approaches to knowledge.
Lack of theoretical attention to faith and spirituality in terms of student development.

3. Faith and Spirituality
More recent attention to faith and spiritual development among college students.
Higher Education’s mission addresses the whole person (Stamm, 2004).
Most college students interested in religious and spiritual matters (Young & Young, 2003).

4. College Student Development
College years are “critical years” in development (Parks, 2000).
College years marked by change in individual self and religious self (Lee, 2002).
It seems that the college experience can play a crucial role in aiding or inhibiting maturation.
For this reason, Parks (2000) referred to the college years as the “critical years” in development.
Past research has indicated that the combination of the impressionability of late adolescence and the conditions of higher education contribute to the college years being an extremely important time of change and development for both the individual self and the religious self (Lee, 2002).
A more detailed explanation for why this time is so crucial in development is that the cognitive and emotional changes that occur during the college years cause students to experience a sense of displacement, confusion, and discomfort (Love and Talbot, 2002). This experience leads students to seek stability and meaning in their lives. There are both healthy and unhealthy ways of responding to this need.
Healthy ways of finding such stability in life occurs through:
the development of critical thinking,
the questioning of authorities,
and the exploration of value-related issues.
However, not having opportunities to grow and explore during this search for meaning can lead students to jump to unexamined views that lead to a narrowness of perspective and a lack of growth.
Some theorists have indicated that the current trend in development is that young adults are not being encouraged to ask big questions that awaken critical thought. But that they are being swept up in assumptions that remain unexamined.

5. Vocational Development
College students consider issues associated with personal identity, faith beliefs, and career options.
Higher education should help students discover and pursue their vocational callings (Crosby, 2004; Dalton, 2001).
Little empirical work examines the nature and development of vocational calling.

6. Research Hypotheses
Vocational Development is the intersection of Faith Development and Identity Development.
Faith and Vocational Development are significantly correlated for all students.
Men and Women discern and act upon vocational calling differently.
Barriers to vocational discernment and action differ by gender.

7. Method Participants: 190 first-year college students.
Private, Christian Liberal Arts
55% female; 45% male
Age range years (M= 18.66)
3% African American; 13% Asian; 72% Caucasian; 10% Latino
These constructs of identity and faith were studied among 189 students who were in their first year at Pepperdine University.
The participants in this study were all part of the previously mentioned longitudinal study on vocational development sponsored by the Lilly Endowment.
The participants completed an online survey that, amongst other measures, included two measures of identity and two measures of faith.

8. Measures Faith Attitudes and Behaviors
Vocational Discernment and Action
Vocational Barriers

9. Faith Attitudes and Behaviors
Subscales
Sample Items
Strength of Belief
(alpha = .81)
I view myself as a religious person.
I have doubts about whether my religious beliefs are true.
Faith Behavior
(alpha = .88)
How often do you attend religious services?
How often have you read a devotional, religious, or spiritual book in the last year?
Application of Faith
(alpha = .90)
I depend on my faith in God for decision-making and direction.
I try hard to carry my religious beliefs into all other dealings in my life.
The first measure used to asses faith was the faith attitudes survey. This survey was developed particularly for this study. As mentioned before, faith attitudes is defined as the importance of faith to the individual, the individual’s strength of belief, the individual’s life application of faith, and the individual’s understanding of calling. Therefore, the measure consisted of four subscales assessing each of these four domains. Several sample items are given here. For example, two sample items assessing strength of belief were: etc.

10. Vocational Discernment and Action
Subscales
Sample Items
Discernment and Purpose
(alpha = .76)
I have a good sense for my life purpose.
I know of the many ways that I can use my gifts and talents within the context of my professional career.
I am unsure about what God is specifically calling me to do.
Service to Others
(alpha = .68)
I am motivated to choose a career that will enable me to provide some type of service to others.
I feel a deep sense of responsibility for reducing pain and suffering in the world.

11. Vocational Barriers Subscales Personal Barriers Interpersonal Barriers
Barriers to life purpose fulfillment
Personal Barriers
(alpha = .84)
Fear
Emotional Problems
Self-doubt
Lack of motivation
Interpersonal Barriers
(alpha = .86)
A parent
A friend
A boy/girl friend
A teacher or professor
Social and Cultural Barriers
(alpha = .90)
Lack of financial resources
Feeling pressure or a desire to get married
Feeling that my opportunities are limited by the gender stereotypes of society
The second measure used to asses faith was the faith behavior survey. This survey was also developed particularly for this study. As mentioned before, faith behavior is defined as the individual’s public religious activity, private religious activity, and the experience of spiritual feelings. Therefore, the measure consisted of three subscales assessing each of these domains. Again, several sample items are given here. For example, two sample items assessing public religious activity are: etc.

12. Procedures
Random sample of 300 students recruited from the 2002 entering class for Web survey. Response rate: 68%.
Most survey items required Likert response using a 5-point scale ranging from “not at all” to “very much”.
Participants received convocation credit for their participation.

13. Results Strong Relationship Between Faith and Vocation
Significant Gender Differences
Faith Attitudes and Behaviors
Vocational Discernment and Action
Vocational Barriers

14. Correlations between Faith and Vocation Scores
Faith Total Belief Behavior Application
Vocation
Total .49** ** ** **
Discern .30* ** ** **
Service .49** ** ** **
**p<.01, *p<.05

15. Gender Differences in Faith Attitudes & Behaviors

16. Application of Faith Scores

17. Gender Differences for Individual Application of Faith Items
I try hard to carry my religious beliefs into all other dealings in my life.
I look to God for strength, support, and guidance.

18. Faith Behavior Scores

19. Gender Differences for Individual Faith Behavior Items
Taking part in activities and organizations of church or place of worship
Frequency of prayer
Finding strength and comfort in religion or faith
Feeling God’s love directly or through others
Awareness of God’s presence

20. Strength of Belief Scores

21. Gender Differences in Vocational Discernment and Action

22. Service Scores

23. Gender Differences for Individual Service Items
Plan to enter career that emphasizes service to others
Feel a deep sense of responsibility for reducing pain and suffering in world
Motivated to choose career that enables to provide service to others rather than career with financial rewards or power and prestige

24. Discernment Scores

25. Gender Differences in Vocational Barriers

26. Personal Barriers Scores

27. Gender Differences for Individual Personal Barriers Items
Fear
Emotional Problems
Self-doubt
Need for personal control over life
Need to feel secure and safe

28. Interpersonal Barriers Scores

29. Gender Differences for Individual Interpersonal Barriers Items
Perception that parents prevent females from fulfilling life purpose

30. Social and Cultural Barriers Scores

31. Gender Differences for Individual Social and Cultural Barriers Items
Lack of financial resources
Societal gender stereotypes impose limits

32. Conclusions The current study provides:
First empirical work to examine characteristics of vocational development in a college student sample.
The current study provides support for theoretical propositions previously described in the literature.

33. Conclusions
Faith attitudes and behaviors are strongly associated with vocational discernment and action.
This relationship is consistent across gender. It holds true for males as well as females.

34. Conclusions Faith expression varies by gender. Application of Faith
Females view their Faith as impacting their whole lives.
Faith Behavior
Females are more likely to practice the habits of faithful and religious life.

35. Conclusions Vocational discernment and action varies by gender.
Females more likely to plan careers of service and to feel called to alleviate pain and suffering in the world.

36. Conclusions
Experiences with barriers to vocational action vary by gender.
Females perceive a greater number of barriers in fulfilling their life purpose:
Personal
Interpersonal
Societal