1. Introduction to Pricing

2. What is Meant by pricing
Price is the value that is put to a product or service and is the result of a complex set of calculations, research and understanding and risk taking ability. A pricing strategy takes into account segments, ability to pay, market conditions, competitor actions, trade margins and input costs, amongst others..

3. Why pricing is so important?
Pricing and the Marketing Mix: Pricing might not be as glamorous as promotion, but it is the most important decision a marketer can make. Price is important to marketers because it represents marketers' assessment of the value customers see in the product or service and are willing to pay for a product or service.

4. What is an Introductory Price
A strategy adopted for quickly achieving a high volume of sales and deep market penetration of a new product. Under this approach, a product is widely promoted and its introductory price is kept comparatively low.

5. How do we come up with a price ?
The price of a product is affected by countless factors that are determined, to a greater or lesser degree, within the different segments of an agricultural chain.
Cases will be cited throughout this presentation that demonstrate key concepts of price formation, in order to enable the student to arrive at a better understanding of the cause and effect relationships between different variables and the price.

6. An initial overview of price formation
Thus far, the word “price” has been used in a general sense, without alluding to a specific link in the production chain.
In fact, it is possible to identify various prices at different points in the chain.
The mostly widely disseminated time series are those dealing with farm, wholesale and retail prices, so when speaking about prices it is important to consider the point in the chain involved.
For example, in 2014 the farm price of limes in Mexico was 1.1 pesos but the end consumer price was 8 pesos per unit (Chavez 2014).
The reason for this has to do with the concept of markup in agricultural chains. Middlemen purchase a product lower down the chain and resell it at a higher price further along.
In the case of limes, the percentage of markup between the price paid to the producer and the price paid by the end consumer was 86%
The price of a product is affected by countless factors that are determined, to a greater or lesser degree, within the different segments of an agricultural chain.
Cases will be cited throughout this presentation that demonstrate key concepts of price formation, in order to enable the student to arrive at a better understanding of the cause and effect relationships between different variables and the price.

7. Example 1 Lime Prices and Percentage Mark-up in pesos in Mexico
Item
Value
Farm Price (pesos per Unit)
1.1
End Consumer price (pesos per unit) 8
Percentage of mark up on farm price
627%
Percentage of mark up on end consumer price.
86%
Source: prepared based on Chavez 2014.

8. An initial overview of price formation
It should be noted that the markup margin, in this case 6.9 pesos (8-1.1), does not represent the profit made by the intermediary, since transaction, costs are incurred when a product passes along the agricultural chain, from one link to another.
The main expenses incurred by the intermediary are transaction, transportation and refrigeration costs.

9. Determinants of supply and demand
The price of an agricultural product is determined mainly by the interaction between the supply and demand, which are influenced by a series of factors.
The determinants of the supply and demand for agricultural products that influence price behavior are analyzed in the following sections.
For example, the agronomic requirements of some crops mean that they can only be harvested at certain times, so that supplies vary over the course of the year.
These changes in the supply lead to variations in prices, which follow a similar pattern every year.

10. Price Determinants of supply
In the case of the agriculture sector, the supply may include not only fresh produce and/ or processed products but also agricultural inputs and machinery, technical assistance, agricultural loans and land, and many other elements.
Given the highly complex and wide-ranging nature of the subject, this section will only address the supply of fresh produce, under the premise that the main generator of the supply are producers and certain variables that they do not control but which directly affect their production decisions and yields.

11. Price Determinants of supply
There is a direct causal relationship between the quantity of a product that is available and its price: the higher the price, the bigger the supply, as rising prices are an incentive for producers to sell more produce.
Unlike its industrial counterpart, agricultural production depends on the production cycles of plants and animals, which means that one of the biggest limitations to the supply of agricultural products is the availability of products for immediate marketing, since they may have been planted but are not ripe enough to be of interest to the market.
More produce is available around harvest times and prices are usually low.
On the other hand, when production is low, little product is available and prices are high.
Unlike other sectors, the production cycle of crops is one of the determinants, since detailed planning is required to be able to supply a product on a specific date.

12. Price Determinants of supply
It is important to remember that agricultural products have different types of cycles and can be divided into:
1. Short-cycle crops
2. Semi-permanent crops
3. Perennial crops
Farmers who are familiar with the cycle of a given product will have access to information about harvest cycles and forecasts, and be able to:
Program the marketing of agricultural products according to the demand
Predict the qualities of an agricultural product
Identify production areas • Identify markets for each product

13. Price Functions
In addition to the cycle, several other factors affect the supply and, consequently, the price of a crop.
The price of an agricultural product can therefore be expressed as a function of different variables:
According to the law of supply, an increase in the price of an agricultural product results in an increase in the quantity supplied.
When the price drops, the opposite occurs. This phenomenon is closely linked to producers’ expectations and attitudes.

14. Price Functions
For example, small-scale and low-income producers tend to be more risk averse, so they reduce or cease production when faced with a drop in prices or climate risks.
If the price of a product has been rising during recent production cycles, more producers are likely to produce that good, thus increasing the number of hectares planted with the crop and, as a result, the supply.
In this regard, it should be borne in mind that failure to control the production of a good usually results in an oversupply, mainly during peak harvest times, which instead depresses prices.

15. Further Reading