1. Evolution of Biodiversity
Chapter 5
Evolution of Biodiversity

2. Dung of the Devil 1918-1920: Flu epidemic (Spanish flu).
20mill-100mill people die. 600,000 in the US (today’s population is approx. 325 million)
Caused by H1N1 (closely related to the virus: swine flu)
Extracts from the “dung of the devil” used 80 years previous for the Spanish flu showed potential to fight the swine flu.
Found only in the tropical rainforests of Madagascar.
Of the most promising current candidates for new drugs, 70% were first discovered in plants animals and microbes.
Unfortunately many being lost to deforestation, agriculture, and other human activities.

3. Earth is home to a tremendous diversity of species
We can think about Biodiversity on three scales:
Ecosystem diversity- the variety of ecosystems within a given region.
Species diversity- the variety of species in a given ecosystem.
Genetic diversity- the variety of genes within a given species.
p. 121

4. How many species?
Species: a group that is distinct from other groups in terms of size, behavior, or biochemical properties and can interbreed to produce viable offspring.
The number of species in a given area is the most common measure of biodiversity (the quantity and variety within an ecosystem).
Scientists have named about 2 million species and approximate there are million on Earth. The accepted estimate is set at 10 million.

5. Both have same richness
Species richness- the number of species in a given area.
Species evenness- the measure of whether a particular ecosystem is numerically dominated by one species or are all represented by similar numbers of individuals.
Community 1 has
Good evenness
Both have same richness
p. 122

6. Phylogenic Tree
How do you determine how closely related two species are to the original ancestor or to each other?
Time
Another example P.126

7. Evolution is the mechanism underlying biodiversity
Evolution- a change in the genetic composition of a population over time.
Microevolution- evolution below the species level.
Gives rise to diversity within a species.
Macroevolution- Evolution which gives rise to new species or new genera, family, class or phyla.
Gives rise to new species, genus, class, family, etc.

8. Creating Genetic Diversity
Genes- physical locations on chromosomes within each cell of an organism.
Genotype- the complete set of genes in an individual.
Mutation- a random change in the genetic code.
First way that diversity is created.
Most mutations are detrimental.
Some mutations improve an organisms chances of survival and reproduction.
Phenotype- the actual set of traits expressed in an individual.
Recombination-occurs as chromosomes are duplicated during meiosis and mitosis.
Second way diversity is created.
Piece of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome.

9. Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index
A way of evaluating both species evenness and richness.
Calculated as
Higher values of H indicate higher diversity. n
n=total number of species
pi=the proportion of
individuals -

10. Example n -
Imagine a community of 100 individuals that are evenly divided among four species, so that the proportions (pi) of the species all equal .25 (25/100). Then Shannon’s index would be…
H= - [0.25 x ln 0.25]+[0.25 x ln 0.25]+[0.25 x ln 0.25]+[0.25 x ln 0.25]
H= - [0.35] + [0.35] + [0.35] + [0.35]
H= - [-1.40]
H= 1.40

11. Evolution Occurs by 3 primary mechanisms: Artificial selection
Natural selection
Random processes.

12. Evolution by artificial and natural selection
Evolution by artificial selection- when humans determine which individuals breed.
Evolution by natural selection- the environment determines which individuals are most likely to survive and reproduce.

13. Example of artificial Selection

14. Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection
Individuals produce an excess of offspring.
Not all offspring can survive.
Individuals differ in their traits.
Differences in traits can be passed on from parents to offspring.
Differences in traits are associated with differences in the ability to survive and reproduce.

15. Fitness: Ability to survive and reproduce.
Adaptation: Traits that improve an individual’s fitness.

16. All species produce an excess number of offspring
All species produce an excess number of offspring. Only those offspring having the fittest genotype will pass their genes on to the next generation.
P. 128

17. Evolution by Random Processes
Mutation- occur randomly and can add to the genetic variation of a population.
Genetic drift- change in the genetic composition of a population over time as a result of random mating.
Bottleneck effect- a reduction in the genetic diversity of a population caused by a reduction in its size.
Founder effect- a change in a population descended from a small number of colonizing individuals.

18. Random Processes Evolution by

19. Speciation and extinction determine biodiversity
Allopatric speciation- when new species are created by geographic or reproductive isolation.
River
changes
course, etc.

20. Sympatric speciation- the evolution of one species into two species in the absence of geographic isolation, usually through the process of polyploidy, an increase in the number of sets of chromosomes.
Once they become polyploid, they generally can not interbreed with their diploid ancestor.

21. Four things that influence the pace of evolution
Change in a species’ genotype or phenotype such as an adaptation.
Can take 100’s to millions of years.
Average global rate of evolution is approximately 1 every 3 million years.
If a species can not adapt quickly enough it will go extinct.

22. Evolution shapes ecological niches and determines species distributions
Range of tolerance- all species have an optimal environment in which it performs well. The limit to the abiotic conditions they can tolerate is known as the range of tolerance.
Fundamental niche- the ideal conditions for a species.

23. Mix of all abiotic conditions that is perfect for the organism.
Limit of tolerance
Mix of all abiotic conditions that is perfect for the organism.

24. Niches
Realized niche- the range of abiotic and biotic conditions under which a species lives. This determines the species distribution, or areas of the world where it lives.
Niche generalist- species that live under a wide range of conditions.
Niche specialist- species that live only in specific habitats.

25. The Fossil Record
Fossils- remains of organisms that have been preserved in rock. Much of what we know about evolution comes from the fossil record.
The average life span of a species appears to be only about 1 million years.
Extinctions may occur because:
No favorable environment to move to.
Favorable environment may already be occupied.

26. The Five Global Mass Extinctions
Mass extinction- when large numbers of species went extinct over a relatively short period of time.
Greatest on record ~90% of marine and 70% terrestrial vertebrates went extinct million years ago.
Better known extinction
happened during the cretaceous period wiping out 50% of all species including the dinosaurs.
Consensus among scientists says it was a meteorite that hit Earth, formed a giant dust ball that blocked out the sun for many years.

27. The Sixth Mass Extinction
Scientists feel that we are in our sixth mass extinction, occurring in the last two decades.
Estimates of extinction rates vary widely, from 2 % to 25% by 2020.
In contrast to previous mass extinctions, scientists agree that this one is caused by humans.