1. Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
Ten Years of Urban Air Quality Management in India: Findings of a Recent Study Across Five Cities
Presented at the Workshop on
Urban Air Quality Management in India: Progress and Future Challenges
Ambassador Hotel, New Delhi, 18th-19th October 2004
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank

2. Structure of Presentation
Why, what, and how of this study ?
What efforts have been made to address urban air pollution ?
What were the effects of those efforts on air quality ?
What are the health impacts of changes in air quality ?
What are the key factors that affect air quality and need to be considered in strategies and action plans ?
What do the findings of this study tell ?
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank

3. Why, what, and how of this study ?
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4. Early 1990’s, SPM-Comparison Across Cities (Source: UNESCAP 2000)
Annual Avg. (ug/m3)
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5. Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
Air Quality Levels 50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Bangkok
Busan
Chongqing
Colombo
Hong Kong
Jakarta
Kolkata
Manila
Mumbai
New Delhi
Osaka
Pune
Singapore
Seoul
Shanghai
Tokyo
concentration in µg/m
SPM Limit = 90 µg/m3 (WHO, 1979)
SO2 Limit = 50 µg/m3 (WHO, 1999)
SPM
SO2
Source: Information collected from national and local government agencies through CAI-Asia network, 2003, detailed sources
available from CAI-Asia Secretariat
PM10 Limit = 50 µg/m3 (USEPA, 1997)
PM10
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NO2 Limit = 40 µg/m3 (WHO, 1999)
NO2

6. Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
Background
Very high levels of urban air pollution, especially particulate pollution, in Indian cities in the 1990’s.
Independent analyses estimated that it could be responsible for significant health damage.
A series of policy interventions followed, in which civil society and judiciary have played a major role (Delhi has set an example)
A number of other highly polluted cities to prepare “action plans” for addressing urban air pollution.
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank

7. Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
Context
On-going debate among air quality experts about the exact impacts of specific measures that have already been taken, and by how much the urban air quality has improved as a result.
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank

8. Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
Objectives
To undertake a retrospective analysis of urban air quality interventions and trends (with a focus on particulate pollution) for five major metros over ten years (1993 to 2002); and
To strengthen, within the limits of the available data and analytical methods, the understanding of factors influencing ambient air quality in different cities so as to assist in the process of formulating future city-level strategies and action plans for addressing urban air pollution.
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank

9. Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
City Selection
Five major cities—Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, and Hyderabad all with a population of more than 5 million inhabitants in the metropolitan area. These cities,
cover a wide range in the levels of PM pollution;
cover different geographical locations (north, south, east, and west), diverse climatic conditions, and both coastal and inland cities;
have relatively more extensive data available;
represent a sample that has had policy interventions; and
are also on the list of the cities that have been asked to develop “action plans” to address PM pollution.
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10. Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
PM Averages (2002)
NEERI Data
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11. 2. What efforts have been made to address urban air pollution ?
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank

12. Delhi: Chronology of Key Actions
: Transport
Introduction of Catalytic Converters and Unleaded petrol
1996: Transport & Industry
Fuel Quality: 0.5% S diesel introduced
CNG vehicles and catalytic converters for government petrol vehicles, excluding public transport introduced (but unsuccessful)
Closure of 168 hazardous industries, including stone crushers completed
Lower Sulphur content in coal (0.4% S) and oil for industrial use (1.8%) introduced
1997: Industry
Relocation of 513 industries
337 hazardous category industries shifted (total of 1160 industries closed or relocated including hot mix plants, arc induction furnaces, brick kilns)
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13. Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
1998: Transport
Supply of only premix petrol in all petrol filling stations to two stroke engine vehicles; ban on supply of loose 2T oils
Phasing out/ban on old commercial/transport vehicles (>15 yrs)
Start of major construction program: flyovers plus the Delhi metro
1999: Transport
Registration of only EURO II 3-wheelers and diesel taxis
Restricting the plying of goods vehicles during the day
Diesel sulphur reduced to 0.25%
2000: Transport, Industry & Urban
Diesel and gasoline sulphur reduced to 0.05% in selected outlets
Replacement of all pre wheelers and taxis with new vehicles on clean fuels
All private 4-wheeled vehicles to conform to Euro II
Buses more than 8 Yrs phased out or to ply on CNG
The three coal based power plants to switch over to beneficiated coal
Piped NG by March 2000 to 1311 domestic, 9 small, and 3 large commercial establishments
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14. Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
2001: Transport, Industry & Urban
Replacement of all post wheelers and taxis with new vehicles on clean fuels
Sulphur content in diesel further reduced to 0.05% in select outlets
Number of CNG vehicles as follows: w; 2200 taxis; 400 buses; 250 RTVs; 9500 private (26350 total)
Piped NG by March to 2821 domestic, 15 small , and 5 large commercial establishments
Hazardous Industry closure continues: total of 3538 closed
2002: Transport & Urban
94 CNG stations setup up to March
All diesel buses phased-out / converted to CNG.
Number of CNG vehicles as follows: w; 4816 taxis; 4231 buses; 2165 RTVs; private (57240 total)
Piped NG by March to 4111 domestic, 37 small , and 5 large commercial establishments
16340 non-destined good vehicles turned away from entering Delhi between July and November
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15. Kolkata: Chronology of Key Actions
1995: Industry
Air polluting industries directed to install air pollution control devices
1996: Transport
Fuel Quality: 0.5% S diesel mandated
1997: Industry
Siting policy for red category (hazardous) industry was implemented
1998: Transport
Low smoke 2T oil for two-stroke engine vehicles mandated
0.25% S diesel mandated in Kolkata Metropolitan Area
1999: Transport
Pre-mixed 2T oil for two-wheelers mandated
2000: Transport
Diesel sulphur reduced to 0.25% for all of Kolkata
2001: Transport & Industry
Low sulphur petrol and diesel (0.05%) mandated
The use of cleaner fuels made mandatory in industrial boilers
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank

16. Mumbai: Chronology of Key Actions
1996: Transport & Industry
Fuel Quality: 0.5% S diesel mandated
Textile industries decline started after the strikes of textile workers
1997: Transport & Urban
CNG conversion of taxis started
Construction of large number of flyovers started
1998: Transport
Low smoke 2T oil for two-stroke engine vehicles mandated
CNG conversion of taxis on a large scale
1999: Transport
Pre-mixed 2T oil for two-wheelers mandated
2000: Transport & Industry
Diesel sulphur reduced to 0.25%
Conversion of a number of industries to natural gas
2001: Transport & Industry
Low sulphur petrol and diesel (0.05%) mandated
2002: Transport
Age-based phase out of taxis and 3-wheelers unless converted to LPG/CNG
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank

17. Hyderabad: Chronology of Key Actions
1996: Transport
Fuel Quality: 0.5% S diesel mandated
1998: Transport
Low smoke 2T oil for two-stroke engine vehicles mandated
1999: Transport
Pre-mixed 2T oil for two-wheelers mandated
2000: Transport & Urban
Diesel sulphur reduced to 0.25%
Construction of flyovers started
2001: Transport & Urban
Construction of by-pass roads for heavy vehicles started
Widening of roads undertaken
2002: Transport
Stopping of permit to new autorickshaws
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank

18. Chennai: Chronology of Key Actions
1996: Transport
Fuel Quality: 0.5% S diesel mandated
1998: Transport
Low smoke 2T oil for two-stroke engine vehicles mandated
1999: Transport
Pre-mixed 2T oil for two-wheelers mandated
2000: Transport
Diesel sulphur reduced to 0.25%
2001: Transport
Low sulphur diesel & petrol (0.05%) mandated
2002: Transport & Urban
Entry of old buses into the center of the city prohibited, and old buses diverted to new bus terminal in the outskirts
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank

19. 3. What were the effects of those efforts on air quality ?
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20. Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
Air Quality Data
RSPM data collected by NEERI between was used; taken from reports submitted to CPCB.
NEERI operates three monitoring stations under the NAMP, typically to cover three types of land use: industrial, commercial and residential.
Also used CPCB / SPCB data for RSPM since it became available in 1999 / 2000, for comparison purposes.
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank

21. Key Data Quality Issues
However, there are a number of significant issues with monitoring and recording of data that compromise data quality and make interpretation difficult:
Limited number of measurements (usually less than 104 / yr in the early years)
Instrument calibration frequency varies between agencies and locations
No systematic cross-calibration or comparison of samplers used by different agencies
Handling of filter papers varies between agencies
Location of monitoring stations and days of monitoring differ between agencies
Equipment were replaced by NEERI in the made- to late-1990’s
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22. Annual Average SPM Concentration
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23. Annual Average RSPM Concentration
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24. Delhi: RSPM by Area (Ann. Avgs.)
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25. Delhi: RSPM by Area (Monthly Avgs.)
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26. Delhi: RSPM by Area (Monthly Avgs.)
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27. Delhi: RSPM by Area (Monthly Avgs.)
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28. Example: Trend Analysis for PM in Delhi
Key Observations
Overall SPM decreases till 1997 and then increases
Overall RSPM decreases till 1997, remains steady till 2000, and then shows a slight increase in 2001.
Possible Explanations
Increasing SPM after 1997 could be because of increase in contribution of construction related PM (flyovers and the Delhi metro), while there was a decrease in combustion-derived RSPM.
Decrease in RSPM parallels the closure and relocation of polluting industries, in (the maximum decrease was seen in the industrial area); also coincided with the reduction in sulfur in diesel and notification of sulfur content in industrial fuels.
However, RSPM samplers were replaced with entirely new models (different manufacturer, different make) during 1995–1997 (while cross-calibration with the prior samplers was carried out, instrument replacement could introduce additional data uncertainties).
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank

29. Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
1328 industries closed or relocated in
Lower S in diesel and other industrial fuel
Change in monitoring equipment !
National Standard (Residential)
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30. Example: Trend Analysis for PM in Delhi
What was NOT observed :
The annual ambient RSPM averages on a city-wide scale did not show a discernible impact of the penetration of CNG as an automotive fuel in
Possible explanations:
The lower emissions from the previously diesel-fueled and two-stroke gasoline engine vehicles were offset by higher emissions from increasing overall vehicle use in Delhi, particularly of diesel vehicles, and ambient RSPM concentrations would have worsened in the absence of the CNG conversion programs.
Given multiple sources of air pollution in Delhi, the impact was not large enough to be reflected in the ambient RSPM concentrations, while a likely larger impact on PM2.5 levels could not be detected because PM2.5 is not currently being monitored.
Meteorological data could have influenced the readings. However, a closer look at the meteorological parameters suggest that there were no significant changes in key parameters as compared to preceding years.
The quality of RSPM data collected is very poor !
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank

31. Comparison of NEERI and CPCB data in Delhi
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32. 4. What are the health impacts of changes in air quality ?
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33. Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
Changes in RSPM levels
Delhi
(ug/m3)
Kolkata
Mumbai
Hyderabad
Chennai
Average
255
196
142 69 73
180
130 83 66 63
Reduction 75
(29%)
(34%) 59
(42%) 3
(4%) 10
(14%)
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank

34. Health benefits of changes in RSPM
Cities
Population (mil.)
No. of lives saved/yr
Economic value (mil. $/yr)
Delhi
12.8
3629
432
Kolkata
13.2
3293
392
Mumbai
11.9
5308
409
Hyderabad
5.5
125 10
Chennai
6.4
484 37
TOTAL
49.8
12,838
1279
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank

35. Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
5. What are the key factors that affect air quality and need to be considered in strategies and action plans ?
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank

36. The Key Determinants of UAQ
Emissions sources: composition and characteristics
Meteorological parameters
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank

37. Relative Contribution of Sources to PM2.5 in 2001
Source: ESMAP 2004
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38. Relative Contribution of Sources
The study (ESMAP 2004), one of the first detailed fine particulate matter source apportionment studies carried out in South Asia, used a technique called chemical mass balance receptor modeling.
The results indicated that there was no single dominant source in Delhi, Kolkata, and Mumbai, but rather three principal sources of particulate air pollution: vehicle exhaust, re-suspended road dust, and solid fuels. The use of solid fuels in more pronounced in cities with colder winters.
This finding is complemented by some of the other source apportionment studies in carried out in India, and strengthens the results of analysis in this study.
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank

39. Monthly Variation in RSPM
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40. Delhi: Role of Meteorological Parameters
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41. Delhi: Role of Meteorological Parameters
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42. Delhi: Role of Meteorological Parameters
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43. Chennai: Role of Meteorological Parameters
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44. 6. What do the findings of this study tell ?
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45. Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
Concluding Remarks
RSPM, the main pollutant of public health concern, fell between 1993 and Clearly, the interventions undertaken had some effect !
This decline in RSPM levels might have led to nearly 13,000 fewer cases of premature deaths and much greater reductions in the number of cases of respiratory illness annually in the five cities by 2002, than in the early 1990s.
Despite substantial past progress the levels of RSPM are the highest and dangerously above the national standards in the northern cities of Delhi and Kolkata, especially in winter.
Given that there is no established threshold for health impacts from exposure to RSPM, all cities will gain substantial health benefits from further reductions.
Reductions in RSPM concentrations have been achieved through a combination of measures targeting industry, transport, and better urban planning / development. This is an important lesson for developing “action plans”.
The nature and magnitude of emission sources may vary between cities, and within a city with land-use. However, if land-use development is mixed, such as in Kolkata and Delhi, then the effect of land-use on air quality is difficult to discern.
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank

46. Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
Concluding Remarks
In addition to sources of air pollution, meteorology plays an important role in influencing ambient air quality. Implementation of the same interventions in two cities with different meteorology and/or mix of sources is unlikely to give the same results.
The importance of strengthening data collection, management, and dissemination cannot be over-emphasized. The power of analysis undertaken in this study is constrained by the quality of data.
A strong framework for monitoring and analyzing impacts of the interventions needs to develop, so that policymakers have access to adequate quality data and information.
Lastly, targeting interventions at the city-level rather than at the state or central governments appears to be the best approach. Hence the preparation and implementation of city-specific “action plans” makes a lot of sense.
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank

47. Sector-wise summary of key actions across the cities
Intervention
Industry
Urban
Transport
Clean fuels
Switching to cleaner fuels (reduction in sulphur, gaseous alternatives)
Increasing share of domestic and commercial users of cleaner fuels (gas and kerosene for cooking, electricity for heating)
Use of cleaner fuels (gasoline lead elimination, sulfur reduction in liquid fuels, use of gaseous fuels)
 Better lubricant quality and only pre-mixed 2T oil for two- and three-wheelers
Improved technology
More efficient and cleaner combustion technology
Better road infrastructure (road widening, traffic management, new flyovers)
Scrappage of old commercial vehicles and their replacement with a new fleet
Stronger and better enforced regulation
Tightened and better enforced emissions norms leading to installation of pollution control devices
Enforcement of land-use zoning regulations (closure and relocation of industry from non-conforming areas, development of green belts/areas)
Introduction and enforcement of new and more stringent emission norms for new and in-use vehicles
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank

48. Thanks to the core team:
CPCB
Dr. B. Sengupta
Dr. S. Dutta
Dr. R. C Trivedi
Mr. N. Badhwar
World Bank
Dr. Masami Kojima
Dr. Kseniya Lvovsky
Mr. K Mukundan
Ms. U Balasubramanian
Mr. Faisal Siddiqui
Dr. Khaliquzzaman
Dr. Sameer Akbar
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49. Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
Thank You All!
The full report entitled
For a Breath of Fresh Air: Ten Years of Progress and Challenges in Urban Air Quality Management in India can be accessed at
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50. Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
Stakeholder Feedback
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51. Annual Average SO2 Concentration
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52. Annual Average NO2 Concentration
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53. Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
RSPM by Area: Chennai
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54. RSPM by Area: Hyderabad
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55. Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
RSPM by Area: Mumbai
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56. Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
RSPM by Area: Kolkata
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