US and comparative politics

US and comparative politics
Edexcel A Level Politics Sarra Jenkins

2017 Specification – Structural changes
In brief: More content across 2 years, but a reduction in content in the USA Addition of Rational, Cultural, Structural political theory (12 marks only) Addition of US/UK comparison (12 marks only) Retention of long answer questions for US only topics (30 marks, 2 of 3 questions) A Level = 3 x 2hr papers – US and Comparative is Paper 3, out of 84 marks. 2/3rds of the paper should be familiar in terms of content and skills Edexcel - DfE document A_level_content.pdf

2017 Specification – Structural changes
Teaching time A Level marked out of 252 marks Ideologies = 48 marks USA = 84 marks UK = 120 marks Theoretically ideologies = 1/3rd of Year 2 (approx weeks) USA = 2/3rd of Year 2 (approx weeks)* Lots of supporting material on website – mapping documents, glossaries, SAMs, etc. N.B. Second set of SAMs is well hidden. Getting Started Guide is helpful. * Weeks based on a school year (and realism!) rather than DfE 360 Guided Learning Hours

2017 Specification – Content changes
No historical knowledge pre-1787 required References to congressional committees and leadership removed and reduced Federal bureaucracy removed EXOP limited to just three branches No reference in spec to Vice President No explanation of procedures of selecting and hearing a Supreme Court case Inclusion of ‘rights’ in the Supreme Court section, and limited to race rights Limits on examples and dates

2017 Specification – Content changes
Democracy and Participation Topic Unit 3 compressed into this one unit No focus on referendums and initiatives Congressional elections included in Congress topic Less historiography of parties No focus on third parties Limitation on number/type of pressure groups to be studied No focus on pressure group classification CRUCIAL – topics are not of equal size, but this must be taught in a reduced manner to the old specification!

Planning a US Scheme of Work
Constitution – approx hours Presidency – approx hours Supreme Court and Civil Rights – approx hours Congress – approx hours Democracy and Participation – approx hours Comparative – approx hours Biggest change from previous specification = Democracy and participation Essentially old Unit 3 compressed down into one topic Your teaching must reflect this!

Example

Key advice – This is a whole new course… plan it as such!
Planning Scheme of Work Key advice – This is a whole new course… plan it as such! Obviously any old resources your have might be useful, but don’t use them as your starting point Start with the Spec., Getting Started document and all the support online Pay close attention to what is, and is not, in the specification. It represents the entirety of what you are expected to teach Decide before you begin how/when you’ll teach comparative – at the end or as you go?

Strategies for delivery
Comparative as you go… Coherence of the specification Constant revision of UK specification Removes some of the ‘fear’ of the new theoretical language Comparative at the end… Acts as a revision for the whole of the A Level in advance of study leave Comparative is worth only a limited amount marks in the exam Easily student-led You’re likely drawing on their UK knowledge as you go anyway

Resources On the market…
Lynch/Fairclough/Cooper – UK Government and Politics McNaughton – UK Government and Politics Bennett – US Government and Politics New Hodder Textbook due 2019 Political Ideas for A-Level Edexcel GCE Politics AS and A Level Student Revision Guides My Revision Notes Don’t underestimate Amazon Marketplace. e.g. Success in Politics (McNaughton) or US Government and Politics (Storey) Maybe of interest… Noting sheets Structure Strips for 30 markers Essay templates on Edexcel website Prep planner Online Twitter!

Resources Online Pew Research Center Brookings Institute
Congressional Research Service (especially the annual Congressional membership document by Jennifer Manning) Lowi and Ginsburg study space - Media – The Atlantic, Politico, Economist, Washington Post, New York Times School run – LGS Politics Blog, Earlham Sociology Pages, Twitter GovTrack Political Studies Association – membership is £44 for teachers. Political Insight is superb and the articles can be used for students.

Rational, Cultural, Structural - Assessment
Q1a & 1b – straight comparative, pick one – NO theories necessary (12 marks) Q2 – comparative including at least one theory, no choice (12 marks) Must compare two countries to get beyond L1 Must include at least one theory to get beyond L3 Students would spend about 15 minutes on each Q – approx. 3-4 paragraphs

Rational, Cultural, Structural – Health warnings
Should be woven throughout the comparative teaching of US and UK The focus should first be comparison and then apply theories A comparative theory should be used to explain differences or similarities between systems rather than within one system Worth very few marks so don’t get hung up on it. ‘Cannot advance beyond L3’ means it is only going to affect the 3 marks in Level 4 Comparative theories have lots of explanation in Specification – ensure you adhere to this as we had to interpret the meaning of these theories to make them work for A Level. Beware – Hague & Harrop, Lichbach & Zuckerberg Not every theory applies with equal ease to every topic

Rational, Cultural, Structural – For teachers
Timothy Lim: Rational – we are all rational actors, so we don’t act in a random, unpredictable or destructive manner. We act out of self-interest rather than the interest of others. We look to achieve our own goals but respond to changing circumstances and constraints Cultural – shared values, beliefs, ideas and attitudes. “Culture is to a large extent what we think”. Despite being intangible, it has power and compels people to act in certain ways Structural – behaviour is determined by structures in which we find ourselves and over which we have limited or no control. Actions can be determined by positions within (and created by) these structures

Rational, Cultural, Structural
For example: Voting patterns of elected representatives in the UK (MPs) & USA (Congressmen) could be determined by: rational theory - a desire to keep their job by pleasing their constituents cultural theory - voting in line with a party, usually due to a shared ideology structural theory - voting determined by party discipline structures e.g. whips or primaries Each one of these might be a different paragraph in the essay, supported by examples.

Assessment Objectives – 12 marks
A01 - knowledge and understanding of political institutions, processes, concepts, theories and issues, some of which are selected appropriately in order to underpin analysis and evaluation. i.e. what is the difference/similarity between the two systems? A02 - comparative analysis of aspects of politics with some focused logical chains of reasoning, referring to similarities and/or differences within aspects of politics, which make some relevant connections between ideas and concepts. i.e. why does this difference/similarity exist or what impact does it have?

Useful comparative resources..?
Timothy Lim – Comparative Politics Hague, Harrop and McCormick – 10th Edition Comparative Government and Politics The ‘rational, cultural, structural’ theory seems to have been taken from one book only (and I wouldn’t recommend it!) – Lichbach and Zuckerman A useful (but tough!) background article for teachers reading around Rational, Cultural, Structural theory owIntro.pdf?sequence=1

Understanding Rational, Cultural, Structural
Political meaning Focus on individuals within a political system Assumption that they will evaluate choices they have and rationally pick based on outcome Usually expects individuals to be self-interested Cultural norms and expectations have the power to influence both the individual and the system The compelling of an action due to cultural expectations Ideas, beliefs, values and identities within a system The system or organisation is more important in determining behaviour and outcome than the individual Individuals have limited or no control over these Student speak People are selfish and will act in a way which achieves the best outcome for them Explaining actions of individuals as a shared belief Some outcomes are determined by the institutions and processes of political systems Simply put… INDIVIDUALS e.g. MPs and Congressmen GROUPS e.g. Pressure Groups and Parties INSTITUTIONS e.g. Parliament and Congress

Rational, Cultural, Structural – Task 1
Suggested task for your class Case study: Analyse the relative neutrality of the US Supreme Court and the UK Supreme Court. INDIVIDUALS (Rational) GROUPS (Cultural) INSTITUTIONS (Structural) USA UK Why might the actions of self-interested individuals support or undermine the neutrality? Why might ideology/groups support or undermine the neutrality? Why might structures surrounding the Courts support or undermine the neutrality?

Suggested task: A case study (teacher or student identified) and the table below Case study: Analyse the relative neutrality of the US Supreme Court and the UK Supreme Court. INDIVIDUALS (Rational) GROUPS (Cultural) INSTITUTIONS (Structural) USA Self-interested politicians appointing judges of a particular ideology – undermine neutrality Justices can often be divided into ideological camps – undermining neutrality Constitutionally, once a justice is on SC, very difficult to remove – upholding neutrality UK Self-interested justices may recognise their lack of power and rule with govt. to avoid looking weak The principle of the rule of law is accepted and therefore rulings are almost always adhered to – upholding neutrality SC set up by sovereign Parliament and power therefore rests entirely on that basis – undermining neutrality Not all of these arguments are as strong as each other and students would have to identify which they wanted to use in an essay

Suggested comparative task: Case study: Powers of the Executives UK: in 2017/18, Theresa May battled to get Brexit through Commons, ultimately losing very few votes on suggested amendments. USA: in 2017, Donald Trump failed to get support for his ‘repeal and replace’ healthcare legislation How can these two different outcomes be explained Rationally? Culturally? Structurally?

Case study: executive power Rationally Congressmen & primaries v party selection Culturally Party ideology – Trump in the US divides Republicans v Conservatives in the UK Structurally Separation of powers v fused power Obviously some of these overlap…?

Comparative Politics Being analytical/evaluative
When discussing differences, encourage students to go beyond the descriptions of the differences. For example: Is the difference an advantage or disadvantage to either country? Does it make the process of governing more or less effective? Is the process easier or harder in either country? What are the impacts (theoretically or in reality) of this difference/similarity? Why do these differences/similarities exist? Certainly the harder of these two is similarities for students – reasonably easy to explain (A01) but more difficult for them to analyse (A02) so this will take practice

Comparing Constitutions
Some possible questions: Flexibility v rigidity Overall, more different/similar Advantages/ disadvantages of each Extent/support of democracy in each Status of each constitution in the political system “Nature and sources” UK USA Uncodified Codified Unentrenched Entrenched (protected by law) 5 key sources of UK Constitution The document + amendments + JR

Some possible questions: Amending constitutions process, formal and informal Extent of SoP/C&B Resulting party systems Distribution of power “Principles and Provisions” UK USA Separation of powers (esp. post 2005) Separation of Powers Checks and balances (esp. post 2005) Checks and balances Devolution Federalism Single party dominance Bipartisanship Unitary state (monarchy) Limited Government (Republic) Flexibility Amendment Process Rights

“Separation of Powers and Checks and Balances” Change over time Review the changing nature of a system over time, especially when evaluating things like effectiveness of SoP/C&B Theory Fused v Separated powers Extent and effectiveness of checks and balances Tyranny? UK Examples House of Lords Act 1999 Constitutional Reform Act 2005 Fixed Term Parl. Act 2011 Wright Committee Reforms Gordon Brown and war USA Examples Judicial Review Government shutdown 2018 Obama 330 commutations 19th Jan 2017 Immigration (Boehner) Obama v Trump Syria airstrikes Obama’s approval ratings (Gallup)

“Similarities between US federalism and UK devolution” UK USA Unitary power - Brexit Federal power - Obamacare Dispersal of power – Organ donation Dispersal of power – Gun control Regionalism – London Mayor Regionalism – Marijuana, Sanctuary Cities Dilution of sovereignty – EU? SC? Dilution of sovereignty De facto and de jure One key way of evaluating similarities and differences may be those which exist in reality and/or in theory Some possible questions: Which is more federal Quasi-federalism of both? Similarities/differences More different or similar Both now unitary ‘In practice…’ Developments in either country “Differences between US federalism and UK devolution” UK USA Sovereignty of Parliament Sovereignty and shared sovereignty Constitutionality – IndyRef Constitutionality – Texas v US Local politics – PCC turnout 15% 2012 Local politics – 2014 governors 28-59% ‘Northern Powerhouse’ Initiatives

Comparing Legislatures
“Powers of each House” Commons Representatives Money – Osbourne and Statutory Instruments Elect President in deadlocked Electoral College Passing legislation Power of the Purse – Shutdowns & budgets War Impeachment Some possible questions: Which upper/lower chamber is more/less powerful Roles and powers (legislation, representation & scrutiny) Relationship between the two Houses in either country Lords Senate Revising chamber Filibuster Parliament Acts 1911/1949 Unanimous consent Initiate legislation e.g. HoL Bill ‘16 Approval of treaties/appointments Try impeachment Common error – Parliament vs Government in the UK In reviewing powers, especially in the USA, many students forget to look for equality between the two houses – legislation, war, impeachment, etc.

Some possible questions: Which upper/lower chamber is more/less in need of reform and why Nature of bicameralism and effectiveness Control over executive It may be that the two houses are taken together i.e. Congress v Parliament in terms of functions Nature of the party system within legislature Law making ability/process “Strengths and weakness of each House” Commons Representatives Size Government dominance Speaker dominance Party structure Parties and bipartisanship Backbench power Nature of parties in US Theatre Short election cycle Lords Senate Unelected Longer election cycle Limited powers ‘Unlimited’ debate More bellicose since 1999 Proportionality of representation Unattached to geographical areas Representation of whole states Whilst these strengths and weaknesses can be explained in isolation, they are best understood as a strength or weakness whilst evaluating a role

“The extent to which each of the Houses are equal” Some possible questions: Rise or decline of power of legislatures Extent of separation of powers in either country (executive and legislature) Control over policy/policy areas (e.g. control over domestic or foreign policy) Relationship with executive This could be taken by a Principal Examiner as equal to each other (i.e. Commons and Representatives) or overall (Congress v Parliament) It still needs to be viewed through the lens of functions and over time Equal Unequal Legislation/legislation process Control of government – US SoP Money bills Legislation - Veto Nature – bicameral, party systems, etc Federalism Scrutiny of executive Sovereignty

Comparing Executives “Roles of US President and UK Prime Minister”
Some possible questions: Who is more/less powerful Collective/unitary power Role of the cabinet Role similarity/differences (both Head of State and Government) Imperialism Changing nature of power ‘Gained authority’ vs reality (charisma, persuasion, etc) “Roles of US President and UK Prime Minister” Key roles US President: Head of state (military, judicial, diplomatic) Head of government (legislative, military, executive) Key roles of UK Prime Minister: Head of government Royal Prerogative (linked to Head of State in a de facto sense) Basic similarities Basic differences Representative of nation Collective responsibility vs ‘one man’ ‘Head’ of governing party Commander in chief role Chief policy makers Sovereignty and mandate Deference Separation of powers

Comparing Executives “Powers of US President and UK Prime Minister” US
Commander in Chief ‘Commander in chief’… Veto (& threat) Chairing cabinet Budget Leader of winning party in Parliament Executive orders Mandate Appointments Appointments to cabinet/govt Treaties Peerages Some possible questions: Formal vs informal powers (who had more/less) Role/importance of the cabinet and the executive within it It would be a useful exercise for students to: Delineate between formal and informal powers Conduct a case study – in the US the specification specifies since 1992, and in the UK they should have studied at least two elections.

Comparing Executives “Extent of accountability to legislature”
US Veto override Treaty ratification Appointment ratification Divided government Appointments Treaties Budget Persuasion UK Committees – select, backbench, public bill PMQs (and MQT) Backbench rebellions House of Lords Patronage Payroll vote Urgent questions Some possible questions: Extent of scrutiny/control Where mandate for this accountability lies in each system Constraints on each executive (formal/informal) Factors that affect this: Strength of mandate from the voters Party unity/factions Size of majority in legislature National circumstances

Comparing Supreme Court & Rights
“Basis for their power” This is one of few questions that has a tendency to lead students into A01 dominated answers. USA Article III of the Constitution says little Marbury v Madison and Fletcher v Peck Restraint and Activism UK Constitutional Reform Act 2005 Rule of Law To move beyond this A01 dominance, they must look at the acceptance of this as a basis for their power today (i.e. cultural…?) Some possible questions: Which has more power (useful always to consider how much power they should have) Power exercised formally/informally

“Extent of their power” Some possible questions: Which is more/less powerful Does their power extend effectively to law making How accountable are they As both judiciaries effectively only have one power, judicial review, the discussion needs really to centre around how effectively this is used in each country. USA Effective – Citizens United/Obergefell Ineffective – Hamdi/Hamden/Boumediene UK Effective – Brexit Ineffective – ECHR/ECJ re: prisoners’ voting Accountability: US = Impeachable but de facto sovereign? UK = permanent but ignorable?

“Relative independence” Some possible questions: Which is more/less independent Do these arguments effectively make the courts ‘imperial’ in each country Do courts protect rights effectively Relationship with elected branches UK USA Life Tenure (age) Life Tenure (behaviour) JAC President/Senate appoint Separation of Powers (from CRA…) Separation of Powers (Constitution) Consolidated fund Constitutionally guaranteed salary “Effectiveness of Rights Protection” – This could be messy! With the US Supreme Court having the Constitutional Amendments to guide their rights protection, this argument is often clear cut for a US-based essay. With the UK courts being beholden to Parliamentary sovereignty, as well as the ECJ and ECHR, it is often less obvious. Good UK examples – Bedroom tax, disability benefit, junior doctors, legal aid, term time holidays, joint enterprise, Hillsborough. Good US examples – Snyder v Phelps, Obergefell, Texas v US, Fisher v Texas, Masterpiece Cakeshop, Ltd v. Colorado Civil Rights Commission

Some possible questions: Which is more/less independent Do these arguments effectively make the courts ‘imperial’ in each country Do courts protect rights effectively Relationship with elected branches “Effectiveness of Rights Protection” …This could be messy! With the US Supreme Court having the Constitutional Amendments to guide their rights protection, this argument is often clear cut for a US-based essay. With the UK courts being beholden to Parliamentary sovereignty, as well as the ECJ and ECHR, it is often less obvious. Good UK examples – Bedroom tax, disability benefit, junior doctors, legal aid, term time holidays, joint enterprise, Hillsborough. Good US examples – Snyder v Phelps, Obergefell, Texas v US, Fisher v Texas

“Effectiveness of Interest Groups IN PROTECTING RIGHTS” Some possible questions: Which is more/less independent Do these arguments effectively make the courts ‘imperial’ in each country Which country has more access points for pressure groups to protect rights Which country’s pressure groups are more effective in protecting rights. USA ACLU NFIB Citizens United Amicus briefs UK Public Law Project Junior doctors/BMA Potentially – Christian Groups…* Gina Miller & Crowdfunding… *Depending on the Q. If it does not specify UK courts, then cases such as Nadia Eweida or Asher’s Bakery could be used to show power of Christian groups in court Pitfall! Students need to ensure this is focussing on RIGHTS and not pressure group action alone

Comparing Democracy and Participation
“Different nature of the party system” Some possible questions: Which party system is most accurate to describe each country Why does each country have the party system that it does Why do two parties dominate in both the UK and USA* *n.b. US specification doesn’t require a focus on third parties. KEY – Party system = the number of parties who have a REALISTIC chance of forming government… Types of party system One party Two party Two-and-a-half party Multi party The US answer here should be fairly clear cut – so students must know WHY The UK answer is far more blurry and students should have a much broader discussion about UK party systems

Some possible questions: Comparison of party unity between UK/US Comparison of party unity between ‘similar’ parties in either country Extent to which factors determine party unity Extent to which party unity is actually a factor in everyday political life (e.g. voting) Role and importance of ideology “Degree of internal unity*” Labour Conservative Democrats Republicans Momentum 1922 Committee Blue Dogs RINOs Labour for the Common Good One nation Moderates Fiscal/Social conservatives Compass Thatcherites Internet Left Christian Right Progress Euro-sceptics *no where near exhaustive or agreed upon! Demonstrate the IMPACT of factions – i.e. degree of unity is not just determined by belonging to a faction but actually by acting upon it

“Party profiles” Some possible questions: Comparison of party policies between UK/US Comparison of party policies between ‘similar’ parties in either country Extent to which external factors determine party policy Extent to which party unity is actually a factor in everyday political life (e.g. voting) Role of ideology in these policies Importance of policies Policy area Labour Conservative Democrats Republicans Social and moral issues Private schools Grammar Schools Obama & immigration Trump & Abortion Economic issues National Investment Bank Austerity 2010 Tax cuts Trump & Tax Social welfare NHS funding Universal credit Obamacare Trump & Obamacare Students seem to struggle annually with parties in both countries and rely on the same old theory e.g. Tories like low tax US: Govtrack.us UK: Theyworkforyou.com

“Campaign Finance and Party Funding” Some possible questions: Which is a more effective/democratic way of funding parties Which country is in greater need of reform Ways in which funding could be reformed Obstacles to reform of funding The case for/against state funding in either country USA McCain-Feingold 2002 McConnell 2003 Citizens United 2010 McCutcheon 2014 UK Short money Donations and fund raising

Some possible questions: Which country is more open to pressure groups Why do pressure act differently in the UK and USA In what ways do pressure groups act differently in the UK and USA Does the nature of government (federal v devolved) affect pressure group action In which country are the more significant Role and importance of lobbying Is the role of PGs democratic “Power, methods and influence of pressure groups” Methods are broadly the same – direct action, mobilising the public, lobbying and legal action. Key = identify how the difference in the way that government operates has an impact on pressure groups. In this sense ‘influence’ and ‘power’ are often determined by a range of factors, including: Size Money Organisation Access points Ideology

Assessment – 12 marks Q1a & 1b General Advice 3-4 paragraphs/factors
Explanation of why this factor came about or the impact it has Inclusion of examples where possible Most students probably writing between 1-2 sides of A4 An introduction and conclusion seems unnecessary, particularly as A03 is not being assessed Use of examples Often used examples poorly…in that they don’t use them. Commonly tacked on to the end of a paragraph as ‘proof’ of their point rather than show analytically why it is relevant. Examples are best placed in the middle of a paragraph with students then explaining what this example shows and how it is relevant both to their paragraph and their question

Assessment – 12 marks Q2 General Advice As for Q1a and 1b…
…but students MUST reference some of the Rational, Culture, Structural theories. Only one is required but I would have thought two would be better Cultural is probably the harder of the theories so weaker students may steer clear of this Don’t miss it in the paper – it is at the head of a sheet of lined paper! Make sure your students are well drilled!

Assessment – 30 marks Q3, 4 & 5 – pick two General Advice
For most of you these are probably not too daunting. They are similar to old 45 mark questions but with a different mark scheme. Therefore 60/84 marks should be somewhat reassuring to you! Students are likely to spend about minutes on each questions Standard essay structure is needed – introduction, arguments, conclusion No individual marks for each A0 – simply level 1-5 with 6 marks available in each level and each A0 making up a component of each level.

Assessment – 30 marks Q3, 4 & 5 – pick two SYNOPTICISM!
This is crucial – students must show that they understand the course as a whole and not simply one topic Almost impossible to avoid for the USA given the dominance of the US Constitution but ensure nonetheless that students are aware of this

Assessment – 30 marks Q3, 4 & 5 – pick two General Advice – Question
CFL – Command, Focus, Limitations General Advice – Introductions 3D’s – Define, Discuss, Direction General Advice – Main essay Balance Examples ANALYSIS! General Advice – Conclusion Answer the question! General advice to teachers Don’t assume your students know how to write an essay properly. Rarely formally taught what should be in each bit of an essay and why. Spend a lot of time doing exam technique, A0’s, timed practice, and so on with students

Any questions? S.Jenkins@lesgrammar.org Twitter - @LGS_politics
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