1. Egoism

2. Moral Philosophy
16th-19th century - General revolt against scholasticism
Morality based on reason rather than on authority of Bible
Consequentialism – what makes an action morally right/wrong are its consequences (Mill, Bentham)
Non-Consequentialist – what makes an action morally right/wrong are not its consequences, but the kind of action it is (Kant)

3. Ethical Egoism
An action is right just in case it advances one’s own best interest.
An action is wrong just in case it doesn’t advances one’s own best interest.
Counter-intuitive: morality seems to be about helping others, sometimes when it is not in our interest

4. Does not mean that the person will become a moral monster (i. e
Does not mean that the person will become a moral monster (i.e. that they won’t have friends)
Why should you have friends? Because it is in your best interest.
We can be wrong about what we think is in our best interest
What is in our best interest? (One suggestion is to be more selfish/look out for one’s own self-interest. Do not partake in charity or altruism. (Backbone of capitalism)

5. Egoism and Relativism
How is Ethical Egoism different from subjective relativism?
According to Subjective relativism, whatever action one approves of that action is right.
But, on ethical egoism, one may approve of a given action (thinking it is best for one’s interest) but it may turn out not to be what is in one’s best interest
E.g. one may run over friends to gain some immediate selfish gain, losing one’s friends in the process. What appeared to be in one’s self- interest turned out not to be. But, for sub relativism, it was right when one initially approved it, and wrong when later one came to disapprove it

6. Ethical Egoism
We are not able to perform an action except out of self-interest (psychological egoism)
We are not morally obligated to perform an action unless motivated by self-interest
So, we are morally obligated to do only what our self-interest motivates us to do

7. Psychological Egoism
Psychological egoism [PE]: all human actions are done out of self-interest
PE is a descriptive theory

8. Ethical Egoism
Ethical egoism [EE]: everyone ought to pursue their own self-interest 
a normative or prescriptive theory
Relativism:
morality is not universal
it is relative to the individual

9. Egoism: A Widespread Belief
Folk psychology
There is a widespread belief that people are just out for themselves
Social sciences
Economics, marketing: rational agent theory
Sciences with high degree of behavioral predictability that assume people are self-interested
Foreign policy
Belief that other nations will always act solely in terms of self- interest

10. PE has ethical consequences
Psychological Egoism [PE] is not an ethical view; it describes something about the world
Suggestion: it should be left to psychology, and scientific explanation. Why investigate philosophically?
PE has ethical consequences
It makes ethics look less plausible
It suggests to some Ethical Egoism
It suggests that we don’t have free will

11. If PE is true, then there are no altruistic acts (i. e
If PE is true, then there are no altruistic acts (i.e., acts done for the sake of others).
But that seems puzzling. Think of Gandhi, soldiers who sacrifice their lives to save another, parents’ acts towards their own children
Psychological Egoists maintain that altruism is an illusion

12. Objection: Moral Deliberation
Received a grenade sailed past McGinnis and into a truck where four other soldiers sat. He shouted a warning to the others, then jumped on the grenade. The grenade, which was lodged near the vehicle's radio, blew up and killed him. McGinnis easily could have jumped out of the truck and saved himself.
"The instinct is, jump out of the vehicle, but his four buddies were in the vehicle with him ... and he chose to place himself on top of the grenade and absorb the impact, and it saved their lives,“- a witness
Moral decision would be too easy if Cultural Relativism was true
All one would have to do is compare one’s moral beliefs with one’s culture. If it matched then it would be right, if it didn’t it would be wrong
But, this doesn’t account for the fact that people deliberate at length about complex moral issues, e.g. abortion, famine relief
Army Private First Class Ross McGinnis; Medal of Honour Posthumously

13. Re-describing Altruism
PE defenders re-describe altruistic action as being self-interested in one way or another
Charity is enjoyable because it demonstrates our superiority over those to whom we are giving; improvement of reputation
Pity is ultimately self-interested because it reflects our own fears of suffering misfortune
Kindness/Compassion?
Prayer?

14. Reasons in Support of PE
Reason for) We often deceive ourselves into thinking our motives are altruistic when really they are selfish.  So, it is probable that we do this all the time –that our motives are always selfish.
Objection) This establishes that (apparent) altruism might be the result of selfishness, but “such a sweeping generalization requires considerable empirical evidence, and such evidence is not presently available.”

15. Reasons in Support of PE
Reason For)  “Whenever I act, I am always pursuing my own ends or trying to satisfy my desires” so it follows that “I am always pursuing something for myself …”
Objection)  This conflates the “genesis” or origin of an action with its purpose:  Just because the act is brought about by the agent’s motives does not imply that the purpose must be selfish ones

16. Reason for) from the fact that all our successful actions are accompanied by pleasure (for us), it follows that the objective of these acts is pleasure for oneself.
Objection) William James' example of the sort of fallacy here: because an ocean liner constantly consumes coal on its trans- Atlantic passage, therefore the purpose of the voyage is to consume coal!

17. Response Ambiguity of PE:
‘self-interest’ can mean two different things
1. ‘motivated’ – yes, we are always motivated
2. ‘striving towards a purpose/goal’
Goal may be to benefit me personally (self-interested goals)
Goal may be to benefit another person (altruistic goals)
Altruism doesn’t deny that we are always motivated but that at least some of our goals are for the benefit of others