1. Campaigns
Historical Comparison of Political Campaigns In the past, campaigns for president were nearly non-existent * Early 1800s (19th century): congressional members from party caucus picked candidate * Late 1800s: nominating conventions replaced caucus, local party leaders/bosses selected candidate Now candidates must have a highly structured campaign, run by large staff * media consultants create ads and buy air time on radio/tv * direct-mail firms design/produce promotional materials for fund-raising * polling firms survey voters on their attitudes towards issues, candidates and run focus groups * political tech firms do web design, online ads/fund-raising, voter-targeting

2. To pay for this help, candidates must raise/spend large amounts of money. In 2008, - candidates for 435 House of Rep races spent around $1 billion - candidates for Senate races spent around $400 million - candidates for President spent around $1.75 billion There has been a huge increase in campaign spending since 1976, with most money going to fund media ads (TV, radio, newspaper, yard signs, Internet) * these media ads appeal largely to emotions (fear, patriotism, community pride) * “campaigning” has become synonymous with “fund-raising” Campaigns in US vs. Europe In the US: - nomination for president is determined by individual effort - largest role of parties is to provide individual candidates with label for voters (ie: “Republican nominee”)

3. In Europe: - the nomination is determined by party leaders - elections are largely contests between parties, not between individual candidates Presidential vs. Congressional Campaigns Presidential… - much larger voter participation (candidates have to work/spend more) - more competitive - need to get mentioned (let reporters know “off the record” that you are considering running, have well-known name, be associated with a piece of well-known legislation, be the governor of a large state) Congressional… - members of Congress can do things for their constituents that a pres can’t so they have a more personal connection with voters - run as individuals (distancing themselves from pres if he isn’t popular) - may be using Congress as a means to the presidency, so want to get their name publicized - have to set aside time to run/campaign (this may mean resigning from their current position)

4. Money - individuals can give $2,000, PACs (political action committees can give $5,000 in each election to each candidate) - candidates must raise $5,000 in at least 20 states in individual contributions of $250 or less to qualify for matching federal grants to pay for primary campaigns Organization - usually have a large (paid) staff and even larger group of volunteers - hire advisors on particular issues (position papers) Strategy - incumbents defend their record; challengers attack incumbents - tone starts out positive, usually turns negative - develops a theme: “trust”, “confidence”, “hope and change”, “compassionate conservativism”, “yes, we can” - has to choose a target voter (base) and gear the campaign toward them