1. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Despite the diversity among cells, three basic features are common to all cell types. All cells have outer boundary, an interior substance and a control region.

6. CELL STRUCTURES

8. PLASMA MEMBRANE
Composition: phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.
Function:
selective passage of molecules into and out of cell

10. NUCLEUS
Composition: nuclear envelope surrounding nucleoplasm, chromatin and nucleolus
Function: storage of genetic information, controls metabolic functioning and structural characteristics of the cell.

12. RIBOSOMES Composition: protein and RNA in two subunits
Function: Protein synthesis

14. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Composition: membranous saccules and canals
Function: synthesis and /or modification of proteins and other substances, and transport by vesicle formation

16. GOLGI APPARATUS Composition: stack of membranous saccules
Function: Processing, packaging, and distribution of molecules

18. VACUOLE AND VESICLE Composition: membranous sac
Function: storage and transport substances

20. LYSOSOME Composition: membranous vesicle containing digestive enzymes
Function: intracellular digestion

21. MITOCHONDRION
Composition: inner membrane (cristae) within outer membrane
Function: cellular respiration

23. CYTOSKELETON Composition: microtubles, actin filaments
Function: shape of the cell and movement of its parts.

25. STRUCTURE OF THE CYTOSKELETON

26. CILIA AND FLAGELLA Composition: 9 + 2 pattern of microtubules
Function: movement of cell

28. CENTRIOLE Composition: 9 + 0 pattern of microtubules
Function: formation of basal bodies

30. Chromosomes are rod-shaped structures made of DNA and proteins.

31. CHROMOSOME
Chromatid- the strand of a chromosome that becomes visible during meiosis or mitosis.
Chromatin – the less tightly coiled DNA-protein complex
Centromere – the region of the chromosome that holds the two sister chromatids together during mitosis.

32. SEX CHROMOSOMES & AUTOSOMES
Sex chromosomes are chromosomes that determine the sex of an organism, and they may also carry genes for other characteristics.
In humans, sex chromosomes are either X or Y.
XX for female
XY for male
The autosomes are all the other chromosomes in an organism except for sex chromosomes.
In humans two of the 46 are sex chromosomes, and the remaining 44 chromosomes are autosomes.

33. HUMAN KARYOTYPE

36. HISTONE AND NON-HISTONE
The DNA in eukaryotic cells wraps tightly around proteins called histones.
Histones help maintain the shape of the chromosomes and aid in the tight packaging of DNA.
Nonhistone proteins are generally involved in controlling the activity of specific regions of the DNA

37. CELL CYCLE
The cell cycle is an orderly set of stages that take place between the time a cell divides and the time the resulting daughter cells also divide.

38. CELL CYCLE STAGES Interphase
-the cell carries on its regular activities.
The three stages:
G1 phase
S phase
G2 phase.
Mitotic Stage
Stages of mitosis:
karyokinesis (division of the nucleus)
cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm).

40. DNA REPLICATION STAGES:
The old (parental) DNA strands unwind and “upzip”
New complementary nucleotides pair with the nucleotides in the old strands. A pairs with T and C pairs with G.
The enzyme DNA polymerase joins the new nucleotides forming new (daughter) complementary strands.
When replication is complete, the two double helix molecules are identical.

41. PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
Is the formation of proteins by using information contained in DNA and carried by mRNA

42. PROTEIN SYNTHESIS TRANSCRIPTION-
is the process of forming a nucleic acid by using another molecule as a template; particularly the process of synthesizing RNA by using one strand of a DNA molecule as a template.
TRANSLATION-
refers to the portion of protein synthesis that takes place at ribosomes and that uses the codons in mRNA molecules to specify the sequence of amino acids in polypeptide chains.

44. CONTROL OF CELL DIVISION
In eukaryotes, proteins regulate the progress of cell division at certain checkpoints.

46. CELL GROWTH CHECKPOINT
Proteins at this checkpoint control whether the cell will divide.
Hint: if the cell is healthy and has grown to a suitable size during G1 phase, protein will initiate DNA synthesis (S phase). If conditions are not favorable for DNA synthesis, the cell cycle will stop at this point.

47. DNA SYNTHESIS CHECKPOINT
2. DNA Synthesis (G2) checkpoint.
DNA repair enzymes check the results of DNA replication. If this checkpoint is passed, proteins will signal the cell to begin the molecular processes that will allow the cell to divide mitotically.

48. MITOSIS CHECKPOINT 3. Mitosis checkpoint.
If a cell passes this checkpoint, proteins signal the cell to exit mitosis. The cell enters into the G1 phase, the major growth phase of the cell cycle, once again.

50. PROKARYOTIC CELL DIVISION
Most prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission, in which two identical cells are produced from one cell.

51. EUKARYOTIC CELL DIVISION
In eukaryotic cell division, both the cytoplasm and the nucleus divide. There are two types of cell division in eukaryotes – mitosis and meiosis.