1. Personality

2. The term “Personality” originates from the Greek word Persona, meaning a mask
In the ancient Greek theater, the actors carried a mask attached to a stick, it represented the character they played

3. Definitions: J.P. Guilford (1959)
“An individual’s personality, then, is his unique pattern of traits.”
A trait is “any distinguishable, relatively enduring way in which one individual differs from others.”

4. Definitions: Mackinnon (1959)
Personality refers to “factors” inside people that explain their behavior
The sum total of typical ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that makes a person unique.

5. Definitions: R.B. Cattell (1950)
The personality of an individual is that which enables us to predict what he will do in a given situation”

6. 3 Facts to Consider When Defining “Personality”
Individuals are unique
Individuals behave differently in different situations
Although individuals are unique and behave inconsistently across situations, there is considerable commonality in human behavior

7. Factors Determining Personality Development
Heredity 
Constitutional Factors :
The constitution of an individual is an effective factor in determining the type of his Personality. There can be 3 bodily types of personality- (1) short and stout, (2) tall and thin, (3) muscular and well Proportioned. One is always impressed by an individual who has a muscular and a well proportioned body. Height, Weight, physical defects, health and strength affect Personality.
Biological Factors:
 The working of the nervous system, glands and blood chemistry determines our characteristics and habitual modes of behavior. These factors form the biological basis of our personality. Adrenal gland, thyroid gland, pituitary gland and endocrine gland affect personality. It is this ability which enables him to mould the social environment according to his requirements.

8. Heredity Intelligence:
 Intelligence is mainly hereditary. Persons who are very intelligent can make better adjustment in home, school and society than those who are less intelligent.4.
Sex Differences:
Sex differences play a vital role in the development of personality of individual. Boys are generally more assertive and vigorous. They prefer adventures. Girls are quieter and more injured by personal, emotional and social problems.

9.  Environments
The sociologists emphasize that the personality of the individual develops in asocial environment. It is in the social environment, that he comes to have moral ideas, social attitudes and interests. This enables him to develop a social‘ self which is another term for personality.
Physical Environment:
 It includes the influence of climatic conditions of a particular area or country on man and his living. 
Social Environment:
 The child has his birth in the society. He learns and lives there. Hence, the social environment has an important say in the personality development of the child.

10. Environments Family Environment:
 Family is the cradle of all social virtues. The first environment, the child moves in, is his home. Here the child comes in contact with his parents and other family member his likes, dislikes, stereotypes about people, expectancies of security and emotional responses all are shaped in early childhood. The type of training and early childhood experiences received from the family play an important role in the development of personality.

11. Environments Cultural Environment:
 The cultural environment refers to certain cultural traditions, ideals, and values etc., which are accepted in a particular society. All these factors leave a permanent impression on the child's personality.
School Environment:
 Schools play an important role in molding the personality of the children because a significant part of a child's life is spent in school between the ages of 6 and 20 years. In the school, the teacher substitutes the parents. The school poses new problems to be solved, new taboos to be accepted into the superego and new models for imitation and identification, all of which contribute their share in molding personality

12. Other determinants of personality
Self Concept
Inter-personal Relations
Psychological Factors
These include one’s motives, acquired interests, attitudes, will and character, intellectual capacities such as intelligence i.e., the abilities to perceive, to observe, to imagine, to think and to reason. These factors determine one’s reactions in various situations and thus affect one’s personality, growth and direction. An individual with a considerable amount of will power will be able to make decisions more quickly than others.

13. Techniques of improving Personality
Appearance
Communication Skills
Self discipline
Spontaneity, simplicity and naturalness
Accepts and recognize weak points
Attending social gathering
Good listener
Positive in thoughts
Knowledge

14. Confidence
Avoids expressing envy and bitter criticism
Keeps away anger and irritation
Serves and helps others
Avoid judging people
Appreciate and praise others
Developing courage

15. Role of education in personality development

37. “Personality” as a construct may include:
Emotional responses
Social behavior
Emotional thoughts and behaviour
Motivations
Values
Interests
Methods of Measuring Personality:
Paper & pencil tests: questionnaires, inventories
Situational exercises
Field or natural observations
Projective measures

38. Value of Personality Questionnaires
Value to the individual (face validity)
Self-insight
Points of discussion
Norms provide comparison info

39. Value of Personality Questionnaires
Value to research (construct validity)
Study relationships of personality w/ other variables
Study changes over time
Value for Counseling
- marital therapy
- university counseling centers
Value for personnel management
Screening
Prediction of success
Placement & counseling

40. Disadvantage of Personality Tests
Social Desirability
Faking “Good”
Faking “Bad”
Random Responding

41. Two Main Personality Theories
1. Trait theory: people differ based on stable attributes (called “traits”)
characteristics lie on a continuum
e.g., the Big Five
2. Type theory: people can be sorted into categories (either one type or the other)
There are many different personality inventories that measure traits or types

42. The Big Five OCEAN Openness to Experience Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism

43. The NEO PI-R (cont.) Examples of Items:
Neuroticism - Frightening thoughts sometimes come into my head.
Extroversion - I don’t get much pleasure from chatting with people.
Openness - I have a very active imagination
Agreeableness - I believe that most people will take advantage of you if you let them.
Conscientiousness - I pay my promptly and in full.

44. The NEO PI-R (cont.) Example Neuroticism facet: Anxiety
I am not a worrier.
I am easily frightened.
I rarely feel fearful or anxious.
I often feel tense and jittery.
I am seldom apprehensive about the future.
I often worry about things that might go wrong.
I have fewer fears than most people.
Frightening thoughts sometimes come into my head.

45. List of Domain and Facet Scores
Neuroticism Extraversion Openness
Anxiety Warmth Fantasy
Angry Hostility Gregariousness Aesthetics
Depression Assertiveness Feelings
Self-Consciousness Activity Actions
Impulsiveness Excitement-Seeking Ideas
Vulnerability Positive Emotions Values
Agreeableness Conscientiousness
Trust Competence
Straightforwardness Order
Altruism Dutifulness
Compliance Achievement Striving
Modesty Self-Discipline
Tender-Mindedness Deliberation

46. Type Theories of Personality
Type A - Coronary-prone behavior pattern: aggressive, need to achieve more and more, workaholic, hidden lack of self-esteem (always need to prove self), always hurried, hostile
Type B – easygoing, noncompetitive, relaxed
People fall on a continuum somewhere between the two
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

47. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Myers-Briggs: based on Jungian theory of personality
Classifies individuals along 4 theoretically independent dimensions.

48. MBTI (cont.)
1. Introversion / Extroversion(E-I) : How is your general attitude toward the world?
2. Sensing / Intuition (S-N) : How do you acquire information?
3. Thinking / Feeling (T-F) : How is information processed?
4. Judging / Perceiving (J-P): How do you make decisions?

49. MBTI Scales
Sensing-Intuition Scale S: Individual reports observable facts through one or more of the five senses N: Reports meanings, relationships and/or possibilities that have been worked out beyond the reach of the conscious mind
Extroversion-Introversion Scale
E: Oriented primarily toward the outer world; focus on people and objects
I: Oriented primarily toward the inner world; focus on concepts and ideas

50. MBTI Scales Thinking-Feeling Scale
T: Judgment is impersonally based on logical consequences
F: Judgment is primarily based on personal or social values
Perception-Judging Scale P: Preference for using a perceptive process for dealing with the outer world J: Preference for using a judgment process for dealing with the outer world

51. MBTI Psychometrics Test-retest intervals range from:
1. Introversion / Extroversion(E-I) : .73 to .83
2. Sensing / Intuition (S-N) : .69 to .87
3. Thinking / Feeling (T-F) :.56 to .82
4. Judging / Perceiving (J-P): .60 to .87
Internal Consistency intervals range from:
1. Introversion / Extroversion(E-I) : .55 to .65
2. Sensing / Intuition (S-N) : .64 to .73
3. Thinking / Feeling (T-F) :.43 to .75
4. Judging / Perceiving (J-P): .58 to .84

52. MBTI (cont.) Uses: Criticisms: Career counseling Team building
Family counseling
Criticisms:
Profiles generally positive
Barnum effect
Validation evidence is sticky
Factor analysis shows Big Five solution

53. MMPI 10 clinical scales and several Auxiliary
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
MMPI-II – most widely used psychological test
10 clinical scales and several Auxiliary

54. MMPI
Table 4-6

56. The MMPI (cont.) Scale Descriptor: Psychopathic Deviate
Tend to act without considering consequences.
Experience absence of emotional response.
May feign guilt and remorse when in trouble.
Are impulsive.
Are not seen as overwhelmed by emotional turmoil.

57. The MMPI (cont.) Example Items:
I am about as able to work as I ever was.
I work under a great deal of tension.
I am sure I get a raw deal from life.
I find it hard to keep my mind on a task or job.
I am certainly lacking in self-confidence
I have difficulty in starting to do things.
When in a group of people I have trouble thinking of the right things to talk about.
I cannot keep my mind on one thing.

58. Original MMPI
Items on the clinical scales of the original MMPI were selected on the basis of their ability to discriminate between normal and clinical groups.
Clinical groups were comprised of depressed, paranoid, schizophrenic, hypomanic, hypocrondriacal
Normal groups were comprised of University of Minnesota students
Initially items were selected from various sources – clinical cases, textbooks, and previous tests

59. MMPI II MMPI added several content and supplementary scales
MMPI-II was normed on a nationally representative sample – 1138 men and 1462 women
MMPI added several content and supplementary scales
A high score on a particular scale indicates the likelihood that the individual possesses those characteristics

60. Projective Personality Tests

61. The Projective Techniques
Projective tests allow the examinee to respond to vague stimuli with their own impressions
Assumption is that the examinee will project his unconscious needs, motives, and conflicts onto the neutral stimulus
Word association tests, inkblot tests, sentence completion tests, storytelling in response to pictures, etc.

62. The Projective Techniques (cont.)
Three features:
Disguised: no face validity
Global: the whole personality
Reveals unconscious aspects of personality
Types:
Inkblot: Rorschach
Picture interpretation: TAT
Sentence completion: Rotter Incomplete SB
Picture construction: DAP

63. The Rorschach Inkblot Test
The Rorschach Inkblot Test is the most commonly used projective test
In a 1971 survey of test usage, it was used in 91% of 251 clinical settings survey
It is one of the most widely used tests that exists
It is widely cited in research

64. History
The earliest use of inkblots as projective surfaces was J. Kerner's (1857)
He was the first to claim that some people make idiosyncratic or revealing interpretations
In 1896, Alfred Binet suggested that inkblots might be used to assess personality (not psychopathology)

65. History
Herman Rorschach, a Swiss psychiatrist, was the first to suggest (1911) the use of inkblot responses as a diagnostic instrument
In 1921 he published his book on the test, Psychodiagnostik (and soon thereafter died, age 38)

66. History
Rorschach's test was not well-received, attracting little notice
David Levy brought it to the United States - thought it was scientifically unsound.
His student, Samuel Beck, popularized its use here, writing several papers and books on it starting with Configurational Tendencies in Rorschach Responses (1933)
Several other early users also published work on he Rorschach
Several offered their own system of administration, scoring, and interpretation, leading to later problems in standardization

67. What is the Rorschach?
The stimuli were generated by dropping ink onto a card and folding it
They are not, however, random: the ten cards in the current test were hand-selected out of thousands that Rorschach generated
Ten blots – 5 black/white, 2 red/gray (II & III) and 3 color (VIII – X)
Thought to tap into the deep layers of personality and bring out what is not conscious to the test taker
The following are the inkblots

72. Administering the Rorschach
The test is usually administered with as little instruction and information as possible
The tester asks 'What might this be? and gives no clues or restrictions on what is expected as a response
Anxious subjects often do ask questions, and vague answers are offered
Some advocate sitting beside the subject to avoid giving clues by facial expression
If only one response is given, some hint to find more may be offered: "Some people see more than one thing.“

73. Administering the Rorschach
The cards are shown twice:
The first time responses are obtained - free association phase
The second time they are elaborated – inquiry phase

74. Rorschach (cont.) Exner’s Comprehensive Scoring System 1. Location
- W = whole (intellectual potential)
- D = subdivisions (common sense)
- Dd = details (compulsive tendencies)
- DW (confabulated detail)
2. Content (i.e., general class to where response belongs)
- people, part of a person, clothing, animal, part of an animal, nature, anatomical

75. Rorschach (cont.)
3. Determinants (i.e., specific property of the blot) - F = shape/outline (rational approach) - M = movement (imagination) - C = color (emotional reactions) - Y = shades of grey (depression) 4. Form Quality 5. typical vs. unusual response 6. time

76. Rorschach (cont.) norms = unrepresentative inter-rater reliability
test-retest reliability
construct validity
criterion validity

77. Psychometric Properties of the Rorschach
The Rorschach is a popular test, however, it has been plagued by low reliability and validity.
Obviously, it is difficult to measure any of the usual psychometric properties in the usual way
Validity and reliability are usually low because of the open-ended multiplicity of possibility that is allowed and by the lack of universally-accepted standardized instructions, administration protocol, and scoring procedure

78. Interpreting the Rorschach
Uses norms for five groups: nonpatient, outpatient nonpsychotic, inpatient character problem, inpatient depressive, inpatient schizophrenics one
Deviation from norms can mean an invalid protocol, or brain damage, or emotional problems, or a low mental age (or just an original person)

79. Psychometric Properties of the Rorschach
Reliability studies that have been done find r-values varying from 0.1 to 0.9
Parker (1983) analyzed 530 statistics through meta-analysis (9 studies) and found an internal reliability of .83
W responses has been linked to general intelligence (r = 0.4); Movement responses are said to suggest strong impulses or high motor activity; DW (confabulatory) responses are taken as signs of a disordered state; low response rate is associated with mental retardation, depression, and defensiveness
Overall, more research is needed to determine the reliability and validity of the Rorschach.

80. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Construct a story about what you see on the following picture
Describe:
- what led up to the scene
- what is happening
- what the characters in the story might think or feel
- how the story will end

82. Thematic Apperception Tests
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): 30 grayscale pictures + one blank for elicitation of stories – each contain a dramatic event or critical situation
Most subjects see cards, over two sessions
Based on Murray's (1938) theory of 28 social needs (sex, affiliation, dominance, achievement, attitudes etc.)
People would project into their story their needs
Attention is paid to the protagonist in each story and his/her environmental stressors
Many variations on this 'story-telling' test exist

83. TAT (cont.) Administration: not standardized Scoring is Minimal
Not the same 20 cards
Not the same order
Seldom 2 sessions
Instructions differ
Scoring is Minimal
Low Reliability & Validity

84. TAT – scoring/interpretation
Congruence with picture stimuli
Conformity with directions
Conflict
Psychometric properties:
internal consistency is low;
high reliability but diminishes with time, 2 months, r = .80; 10 months r = .50;
Inter-rater reliability vary with studies: range .3 to .9

85. Examples of Projectives
Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB)
Complete the following sentences to express your real feelings:
I like ……..
My greatest fear ……..
This PSY D instructor is ……..

86. RISB (cont.) Designed to screen for emotional maladjustment
Info about wishes, desires, likes, dislikes, fears, and locus of control
40 items: easy to administer (group or ind.)
Rigorous scoring system: high interrater r
Scoring ranges from 0 to 6
Responses are scored as to the degree of conflict expressed, optimism shown, length of responses, omissions
Psychometrically sound but less used

87. Draw-a-Person Test Originally to assess children’s intelligence
Now: a screening procedure for emotional disturbance
Cannot constitute a diagnosis
The administration:
Draw a person
Draw a person of the opposite sex
Draw yourself

88. Draw-a-Person Test Administrator Asks: Can you please draw a person?
Draw whatever you like in any way you like?
Administrator Then Asks:
- Draw a person of the opposite sex?

89. Draw-a-Person Test (cont.)
Subjective vs. quantitative scoring system
Clinician looks for:
Sequence of body parts
Verbalizations during the drawing process
Size & placement of figures on the page
Amount of action depicted
Systematization in doing the task
Number of erasures
Shading
Gender of picture
Over attention to certain body parts

90. Draw-a-Person Test (cont..)
Among the plausible but empirically untrue relations that have been claimed:
- Large size = Emotional expansiveness or acting out
- Small size = emotional constriction; withdrawal, or timidity
- Overworked lines = tension, aggression
- Distorted or omitted features = Conflicts related to that feature
- Large or elaborate eyes = Paranoia

91. Other common projective tests
CAT – Children Apperception Test – (Bellak, 1975)
Word Association Test – Rapaport et al. (1946, 1968) – 60 words: neutral and traumatic – scored: popularity, RT, content, test-retest responses
Sentence Completion – Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank – 40 sentences – evaluated on 7 point scale by “need for therapy” to “extremely good adjustment”
House-Tree-Person Test (Buck, 1948) & Draw-A-Person (Machover, 1949): Subject is asked to draw
Scoring is on absolute size, relative size of elements, omissions
"If there is a tendency to over-interpret projective test data without sufficient empirical grounds, then projective drawing tests are among the worst offenders."
Kaplan & Saccuzo, Psychological Testing, 2001, p. 467

92. Sources of Inaccuracy in Personality Testing
Personality assessment largely depends on self-report
Response sets may affect personality results

93. Social Desirability
Some test takers choose socially acceptable answers or present themselves in a favourable light
People often do not attend as much to the trait being measured as to the social acceptability of the statement
This represents unwanted variance

94. Social Desirability (cont.)
Example items:
Friends would call me spontaneous.
People I know can count on me to finish what I start.
I would rather work in a group than by myself.
I often get stressed-out in many situations.

95. Faking
Faking -- some test takers may respond in a particular way to cause a desired outcome
may “fake good” (e.g., in employment settings) to create a favourable impression
may “fake bad” (e.g., in clinical or forensic settings) as a cry for help or to appear mentally disturbed
may use some subtle questions that are difficult to fake because they aren’t clearly face valid

96. “Faking Bad” People try to look worse than they really are Reasons:
Common problem in clinical settings
Reasons:
Cry for help
Want to plea insanity in court
Want to avoid draft into military
Want to show psychological damage
Most people who fake bad overdo it

97. Random Responding
Random responding may occur when test takers are unwilling or unable to respond accurately.
likely to occur when test taker lacks the skills (e.g., reading), does not want to be evaluated, or lacks attention to the task
try to detect by embedding a scale that tends to yield clear results from vast majority such that a different result suggests the test taker wasn’t cooperating

98. Random Responding Detection: Duplicate items: “I love my mother.”
“I hate my mother.”
Infrequency scales:
“I’ve never had hair on my head.”
“I have not seen a car in 10 years.”

99. Impression Management
Mitigating IM:
Use positive and negative impression scales (endorsed by 10% of the population)
Use lie scales to “flag” those who score high (e.g., “I get angry sometime”).
Inconsistency scales (e.g., two different responses to two similar questions)
(Use multiple assessment methods (other than self-report)