1. Structural Collapse Rescue Operations
Awareness Level

2. NFPA 1670 – Standard on Operations and Training for Technical Search and Rescue Incidents
6.2 Awareness Level
6.2.2 Organizations operating at the awareness level for structural collapse incidents shall implement procedures for the following:
(1) Recognizing the need for structural collapse search and rescue
(2) Identifying the resources necessary to conduct structural collapse search and rescue operations
(3) Initiating the emergency response system for structural collapse incidents
(4) Initiating site control and scene management
(5) Recognizing the general hazards associated with structural collapse incidents, including the recognition of applicable construction types and categories and the expected behaviors of components and materials in a structural collapse
(6) Identifying the five types of collapse patterns and potential victim locations
(7) Recognizing the potential for secondary collapse
(8) Conducting visual and verbal searches at structural collapse incidents, while using approved methods for the specific type of collapse
(9) Recognizing and implementing a search and rescue/search assessment marking system, building marking system (structure/hazard evaluation), victim location marking system, and structure marking system (structure identification within a geographic area), such as the ones used by the FEMA USAR
(10) Removing readily accessible victims from structural collapse incidents
(11) Identifying and establishing a collapse safety zone
(12) Conducting reconnaissance (recon) of the structure(s) and surrounding area.

3. NFPA 1670 – Standard on Operations and Training for Technical Search and Rescue Incidents
6.2 Structural Collapse Search and Rescue – Awareness Level
6.2.1 – Organizations operating at the awareness level for structural collapse incidents shall meet the requirements specified in section 7.2 (awareness level for confined space search and rescue)
Organizations at the awareness level shall be responsible for performing certain nonentry rescue (retrieval) operations
Organizations operating at the awareness level for confined space search and rescue incidents shall implement procedures for the following:
(1) Recognizing the need for confined space search and rescue
(2) Initiating contact and establishing communications with victims where possible
(3) Recognizing and identifying the hazards associated with nonentry confined space emergencies
(4) Recognizing confined spaces
(5) Performing a nonentry retrieval
(6) Implementing the emergency response system for confined space emergencies
(7) Implementing site control and scene management

4. WAC 296-305 296-305-05113 Technical Rescue Operational Specialties
(5) Trench Rescue
(a) Organizations choosing to operate a the awareness, operations or technician level for trench and excavation rescue incidents must meet the requirements of this section and nonconflicting portions of chapter 11 of the 2009 edition of NFPA 1670, Standard on Operations and Training for Technical Rescue Incidents.
(b) Employees that directly engage in trench rescue operations shall be under the direct supervision of person(s) with adequate training in trench and excavation hazard recognition, equipment use and operational techniques.
(c) Each employee in an excavation shall be protected from cave-ins by an adequate protective system except when:
(i) Excavations are made entirely in stable rock; or
(ii) Excavations are less than four feet (1.22 meters) in depth and examination of the ground by a competent person provides no indication of a potential cave-in.

5. Definitions
Awareness Level Actions taken by the responders at the Awareness Level are defensive in nature and should pose no risk, or a low level of risk to the responder. This level represents the minimum capability of organizations that provide response to technical rescue incidents.
Operational Level Actions taken at the Operational Level are of limited offensive nature and generally at a low or moderate risk to the responder. This level represents the capability of organizations to respond to technical rescue incidents and to identify hazards, use equipment, and apply limited techniques to support and participate in technical rescue incidents.
Technical Level Actions taken by the responders are offensive in nature and may pose a high level of risk. This level represents the capability of organizations to respond to technical rescue incidents, to identify hazards, use equipment, and apply advanced techniques specified to coordinate, perform, and supervise technical rescue incidents.

6. What is it?
Urban Search and Rescue (USAR) is a term applied to rescue and recovery operations at the scene of a large and complex structural collapse. This may include multiple structures.
USAR knowledge and skills can be applied to the scene of a “less complex” structural collapse. This usually involves only one structure and can be handle by our resources.

7. How can we apply our USAR knowledge and Skills?
At the “high frequency” events:
Structure fires.
Vehicles into structures.
Entrapments & Industrial accidents.
When completing pre-fire plans and during a tactical walk-through.
At the “low frequency” events:
Structural collapses
RIT operations
Disasters
Terrorism & WMD

8. Survival vs Time for Extrication
Survival Times
Survival vs Time for Extrication
1 hour
95%
1 Day
81%
2 Day
37%
3 Day
34%
4 Day
19%
5 Day 7%

9. Common causes of Structural Collapse
Fire
Accident (vehicle impact, etc.).
Structural characteristics (age, materials, methods and design).
Ground instability (mud slides, sinkholes).
Overloading (people and/or stock, fire streams).
Extreme Weather: Rain/flood waters, snow, tornadoes and wind storms.
Explosions (bombs, utilities, fireworks, dust, etc.).
Earthquake/Volcanic activity (volcanic ash deposits).
Hazardous Materials

10. Building Construction
Awareness Level = Knowledge of:
Collapse characteristics.
Warning signs of secondary collapse.
IN LIGHT FRAMED STRUCTURES
Recognize how type of construction relates to resources needed for rescue operation.
Light Frame Construction Materials used for construction are generally lightweight and provide a high degree of structural flexibility to applied forces such as earthquakes, hurricanes, tornadoes, etc. These structures are typically constructed with a skeletal structural frame system of wood or light gage steel components, which provide support to the floor or roof assemblies. Examples of this construction type are wood frame structures used for residential, multiple low rise occupancies and light commercial occupancies up to four stories in height. Light gage steel frame buildings include commercial business and light manufacturing occupancies and facilities.
Heavy Wall Construction
Materials used for construction are generally heavy and utilize an interdependent structural or monolithic system. These types of materials and their assemblies tend to make the structural system inherently rigid. This construction type usually built without a skeletal frame. It utilizes a heavy wall support and assembly system to provide for the floors and roof assemblies. Occupancies utilizing tilt-up concrete construction are typically one to three stories in height and consist of multiple monolithic concrete wall panel assemblies. They also use an interdependent girder, column, and beam system for providing lateral wall support of floor and roof assemblies. Occupancies typically include commercial, mercantile and industrial. Other examples of this type of construction include reinforced and unreinforced masonry (URM) buildings typically of low-rise construction, one to six stories in height, of any occupancy.
Heavy Floor Construction Structures of this type are built utilizing cast-in-place concrete construction consisting of flat slab panel, waffle or two-way concrete slab assemblies. Pre-tensioned or post-tensioned reinforcing steel rebar or cable systems are common components for structural integrity. The vertical supports include integrated concrete columns, concrete enclosed or steel frame, which carry the load of all floor and roof assemblies. This type includes heavy timber construction that may use steel rods for reinforcing. Examples of this type of construction include offices, schools, apartments, hospitals, parking structure and multi-purpose facilities. Common heights vary from single story to high rise structures.
Pre-Cast Construction Structures of this type are built utilizing modular pre-cast concrete components that include floors, walls, columns and other sub-components that are field connected upon placement on site. Individual concrete components utilize imbedded steel reinforcing rods and welded wire mesh for structural integrity and may have either steel beam, column or concrete framing systems utilized for the overall structural assembly and building enclosure. These structures rely on single or multi-point connections for floor and wall enclosure assembly and are a safety and operational concern during collapse operations. Examples of this type of construction include commercial, mercantile, office, and multi-use or multi-function structures including parking structures and large occupancy facilities.

11. Building Construction
Light Frame Building Collapse
Usually residential homes and apartments
Highly susceptible to fires
Complete Collapses occur frequently
Light Frame Construction Materials used for construction are generally lightweight and provide a high degree of structural flexibility to applied forces such as earthquakes, hurricanes, tornadoes, etc. These structures are typically constructed with a skeletal structural frame system of wood or light gage steel components, which provide support to the floor or roof assemblies. Examples of this construction type are wood frame structures used for residential, multiple low rise occupancies and light commercial occupancies up to four stories in height. Light gage steel frame buildings include commercial business and light manufacturing occupancies and facilities.
Look for badly cracked walls, leaning walls, offset of structure from foundation, or leaning first story.

12. Building Construction
Heavy Wall (URM) Building Collapse
Usually one to six stories high, residential, commercial, industrial, or institutional
Principle weakness in lateral strength
Partial collapse is most common
Heavy Wall Construction (Unreinforced Masonry) (URM)
Materials used for construction are generally heavy and utilize an interdependent structural or monolithic system. These types of materials and their assemblies tend to make the structural system inherently rigid. This construction type usually built without a skeletal frame. It utilizes a heavy wall support and assembly system to provide for the floors and roof assemblies. Occupancies utilizing tilt-up concrete construction are typically one to three stories in height and consist of multiple monolithic concrete wall panel assemblies. They also use an interdependent girder, column, and beam system for providing lateral wall support of floor and roof assemblies. Occupancies typically include commercial, mercantile and industrial. Other examples of this type of construction include reinforced and unreinforced masonry (URM) buildings typically of low-rise construction, one to six stories in height, of any occupancy.
Look for loose/broken parapet walls, connections between walls and floor, unsupported and partially collapsed floors

13. Building Construction
Heavy Floor Building Collapse
Residential, commercial, industrial
Concrete frames up to 12 stories
Includes concrete highway bridges
Weakness is poor column reinforcement, and connection between floor and column
May fail partially or completely, and potential laterally
Heavy Floor Construction Structures of this type are built utilizing cast-in-place concrete construction consisting of flat slab panel, waffle or two-way concrete slab assemblies. Pre-tensioned or post-tensioned reinforcing steel rebar or cable systems are common components for structural integrity. The vertical supports include integrated concrete columns, concrete enclosed or steel frame, which carry the load of all floor and roof assemblies. This type includes heavy timber construction that may use steel rods for reinforcing. Examples of this type of construction include offices, schools, apartments, hospitals, parking structure and multi-purpose facilities. Common heights vary from single story to high rise structures.

14. Building Construction
Heavy Wall/Tilt-Up/Reinforced Masonry Building Collapse
Usually one to five stories
Industrial/Commercial
Weakness is between walls and floors or roofs. Walls fall away from floor/roof.
Look for connection of walls and roofs/floors, and connection between beams and columns
Heavy Wall/Tilt-Up/Reinforced Masonry Construction Structures of this type are usually built utilizing modular pre-cast concrete components that include floors, walls, columns and other sub-components that are field connected upon placement on site. Individual concrete components utilize imbedded steel reinforcing rods and welded wire mesh for structural integrity and may have either steel beam, column or concrete framing systems utilized for the overall structural assembly and building enclosure. These structures rely on single or multi-point connections for floor and wall enclosure assembly and are a safety and operational concern during collapse operations. Examples of this type of construction include commercial, mercantile, office, and multi-use or multi-function structures including parking structures and large occupancy facilities.

15. Light Wood Framed Construction
Light framed construction (wood and metal) are the most common.
Engine and Truck Companies are responsible for initial actions at these structures (NFPA Standard).
Identification of SAR needs and collapse potential in Heavy Wall, Heavy Floor, and Pre-Cast construction are the responsibility of Operations level Truck Company Firefighters and the Technical Rescue Team (NFPA Standard).
Initial Structural Size-up:
Check conditions of road or ground for stability before parking apparatus.
Check for hazards from overhead utilities.
Do not park apparatus in collapse zone (commonly 1 ½ times the remaining height of the building away from the structure, evaluate and use your judgment).
Check all sides of structure for stability and other hazards.
Report conditions to all incoming units and advise of access and staging.

16. Light Metal Framed Construction

17. Void Spaces Survival zones & Search areas
Lean-to A lean-to is formed when one or more of the supporting walls or floor joists breaks or separates at one end, causing one end of the floor(s) to rest on the lower floor(s). Potential areas where victims might be located are under the suspended floor and on top of the floor at the lowest level.
V-Shape A "V" is formed when heavy loads cause the floor(s) to collapse near the center. Potential areas where victims might be located are under the two suspended floor pieces and on top of the floor in the middle of the V.
A-Frame
Pancake A pancake is formed when the bearing wall(s) or column(s) fails completely and an upper floor(s) drops onto a lower floor(s), causing it to collapse in a similar manner. Potential areas where victims might be located are under floors and in voids formed by building contents and debris wedged between the floors.
Cantilever A cantilever is formed when one end of the floor(s) hangs free because one or more walls have failed and the other end of the floor(s) is still attached to the wall(s). Potential areas where victims might be located are on top of or under the floors.

18. 135 Rescuers died in the Mexico City Earthquake.
Structural Collapse
Size - Up
6 Sided Approach
Four Sides
Above
Below
Follow the three S’s: Survey … Stabilize … Search
Survey:
Check area for stability and
Secure all utilities.
Use air-monitoring devices prior to and during search operations.
Stabilize:
Ventilate as needed.
Cribbing and Shoring.
Control or divert water
Continue to monitor for signs of shifting and collapse.
Search:
Have coordinated Search operation. Poor placement of Search
teams and added weight can cause secondary collapse.
Use Search Marking system.
60% of all Confined Space (void space) deaths are to Rescuer’s!
135 Rescuers died in the Mexico City Earthquake.
65 of them Drowned!

19. Structural Collapse Rescue Size-up
Treat Walking Wounded, DO NOT allow them to re-enter the building
Check immediate area for victims trapped by surface debris
Interview occupants for last know location of victims
DO NOT park in the Secondary Collapse Zone!!
What is considered a safe distance from the structure?
Search Methods:
Search from perimeter of debris pile and collapsed structure
Do not walk on unstable debris, secondary collapse may be the result!
Direct all ambulatory patients to a safe triage or treatment area.
Search area in a systematic manner.
Hailing Procedures:
Position Rescuers around area to be searched.
Rescue Team Leader calls for silence and all work in area to stop.
Start calling out or tapping on some object, one at a time.
Pause and each rescuer listens for response and try to get a “fix” on location.
Any sound heard should be verified by at least one other Rescuer.
Continue procedure in a systematic rotation (clockwise, etc)

20. Stages of Collapse Rescue Operations
Stage I
Stage II
Four stages of Rescue
Stage I
Size up and Recon
Size up entire area assigned to you.
Assess Structure/Hazards
Secure Utilities if safely done
Mark Structure
Draw diagram of area surveyed
Identify entrapped victims (Utilize Search Marking System)
Provide information to appropriate Team Leader/Supervisor (ICS Designate)
Rescue and remove surface victims.
During the size up (walk-around) if possible.
From exterior of structure only.
From on top of and under exterior debris piles.
Scene organization and management
Establish/Expand the ICS as needed.
Request equipment and resources (you may know you will not get them soon, but request must be made as soon as possible!).
Identify Triage areas/Casualty Collection Point(s).
Identify staging area(s).
Stage II
Search likely survival places
After completing stage 1
Determined by type of structure, time of day, and information from survivors, neighbors, relatives, etc.
Locating methods
Hailing systems
Listening, Thermal sensing and fiber optic devices.
Trained Search and Rescue dogs
Search the Voids
Identify type of void
Identify hazards
Search in void spaces and in debris piles at lower end of spaces.

21. Stages of Collapse Rescue Operations Stage I Size Up and Recon
Depending on the event can last a few minutes to several hours
Find out how big the problem really is
Organized Survey of the damaged area
What resources are available
What can we do about the problem
Four stages of Rescue
Stage I
Size up and Recon
Size up entire area assigned to you.
Assess Structure/Hazards
Secure Utilities if safely done
Mark Structure
Draw diagram of area surveyed
Identify entrapped victims (Utilize Search Marking System)
Provide information to appropriate Team Leader/Supervisor (ICS Designate)
Rescue and remove surface victims.
During the size up (walk-around) if possible.
From exterior of structure only.
From on top of and under exterior debris piles.
Scene organization and management
Establish/Expand the ICS as needed.
Request equipment and resources (you may know you will not get them soon, but request must be made as soon as possible!).
Identify Triage areas/Casualty Collection Point(s).
Identify staging area(s).
Stage II
Search likely survival places
After completing stage 1
Determined by type of structure, time of day, and information from survivors, neighbors, relatives, etc.
Locating methods
Hailing systems
Listening, Thermal sensing and fiber optic devices.
Trained Search and Rescue dogs
Search the Voids
Identify type of void
Identify hazards
Search in void spaces and in debris piles at lower end of spaces.

22. Stages of Collapse Rescue Operations Stage I Size Up and Recon
Prioritize the Problems
The first priority is YOUR safety
The second priority is the safety of your crew
The third priority is other people
The fourth priority is property conservation
Four stages of Rescue
Stage I
Prioritization allows you to determine which problems to solve first

23. Stages of Collapse Rescue Operations Stage I Size Up and Recon
Establish Incident Command
Designate a command post.
Ensure that the CP is located outside of the secondary collapse zone
Remain available by staying in the command post

24. Stages of Collapse Rescue Operations Stage I Size Up and Recon
Rescue and Remove Surface Victims
50% of all survivors are surface victims – injured but not trapped – Deal with them first
Remove them from the hazards
Keep people from entering structures, allow structures time to settle
Organize spontaneous rescue teams and direct them where they will do the most good
Four stages of Rescue
Stage I

25. Stages of Collapse Rescue Operations
Stage II
Begins when rescue teams arrive and ICS has been established
Use the information gathered to search the likely survival places
Use location methods, searching outside by voice, listening devices, dogs, TICS, and fiber optics
Stage II
Search likely survival places
After completing stage 1
Determined by type of structure, time of day, and information from survivors, neighbors, relatives, etc.
Locating methods
Hailing systems
Listening, Thermal sensing and fiber optic devices.
Trained Search and Rescue dogs
Search the Voids
Identify type of void
Identify hazards
Search in void spaces and in debris piles at lower end of spaces.

26. Stages of Collapse Rescue Operations
Stage II
Search the voids as a last resort
Enter those voids that have the highest likelihood of survivors
Shore as you go
Monitor for hazards
30% of all survivors in Structural Collapse are involved in non-structural entrapment
Stage II
Search likely survival places
After completing stage 1
Determined by type of structure, time of day, and information from survivors, neighbors, relatives, etc.
Locating methods
Hailing systems
Listening, Thermal sensing and fiber optic devices.
Trained Search and Rescue dogs
Search the Voids
Identify type of void
Identify hazards
Search in void spaces and in debris piles at lower end of spaces.

27. FAST VOIDS Fire Suppression Additional Collapse Potential
Structure Type and Condition
Trapped Victim Rescue
Void Types & Location
Occupancy Type & Hazards
Immediate Utility Shutdown
Day or Night
Situation – Cause of Collapse
Fast Voids is an acronym for items that should be addressed before entering any void in a building collapse. The following is an explanation of this check list of procedures.
F=Fire Suppression – Small fire can become big fires in a very short time. Remember, smoke kills
A=Additional collapse potential – Is building or its components moving? What about loose/hanging debris
S=Structure Type & Condition – Is it old, new, maintained, under construction, or demolition?
T= Trapped victim rescue – Regarding the trapped victim: is it confirmed/unconfirmed? Are the crushed, impaled, pinned, dead or alive?
V= Void Types & Locations – You need to size-up the location and number of voids
O= Occupancy type/hazards – Examples include a private dwelling vs. commercial, nursing home, etc.
I= Immediate utilities shutdown – Who Should handle this?
D= Day or night – based on occupancy type, this may give an indication of number of potential victims.
S= Situation – Cause of collapse – gas explosion, terrorist attack, etc.

28. Stages of Collapse Rescue Operations Stage III Stage IV Stage III
Selected debris removal
Develop a systematic plan for removing selected portions of debris
Keep number of rescue team members inside structure to a minimum
Remove debris from top and work towards the bottom
Mark debris piles that have been removed to prevent future movement
Stage IV
General Debris Removal
Probability of finding live victims is highly unlikely
Structure and debris are systematically removed with heavy equipment without regard to preference to any particular location of victims
Rubble removed from the structure must be inspected for bodies and body parts
Any bodies or body parts found must be taken to a predetermined location and identified

29. Stages of Collapse Rescue Operations
Stage III
Begins after all surface victims are removed and cared for and those in voids can be removed without major debris removal
Selective debris removal using heavy equipment, trained rescue teams working with private contractors
Removal of entombed victims
Stage III
Selected debris removal
Develop a systematic plan for removing selected portions of debris
Keep number of rescue team members inside structure to a minimum
Remove debris from top and work towards the bottom
Mark debris piles that have been removed to prevent future movement

30. Stages of Collapse Rescue Operations
Stage IV
Usually begins 5-6 days after the event
Probability of further survivors is minimal, and private contractors will usually finish clean up
Stage IV
General Debris Removal
Probability of finding live victims is highly unlikely
Structure and debris are systematically removed with heavy equipment without regard to preference to any particular location of victims
Rubble removed from the structure must be inspected for bodies and body parts
Any bodies or body parts found must be taken to a predetermined location and identified

31. Types of Search Physical Canine Technical
Use all three for the most complete search
Technical

32. Locating Survivors and Victims
Hailing procedures.
Search and Listen!
Thermal Imaging
Search Camera
Confined Space Equipment
Search Dogs
TIC’s (Thermal Imaging Cameras are invaluable when search collapsed structures. When dust and insulation cover all areas, TIC’s can assist in locating victims.
Advanced search cameras are available from the Technical Rescue Team. Specific Confined Space equipment may also be useful in void space rescue operations.
Search Dogs: It must be verified that the search dogs are of the correct type for the operation. USAR Search dogs, Wilderness Search Dogs, Cadaver Dogs, Bomb & Drug Dogs all have unique training and limitations. Search Dogs are requested through Dispatch or the EOC. Search Dogs are very useful, but USAR Search Dogs have an extended response time to our area.

33. Search Team Tools and Equipment
Tools for
Search Team
Lineman’s Pliers.
Tin Snips
Utility Knife.
Marking Chalk and Lumber Crayons.
Spray Paint.
Flashlight and Chemical Light sticks.
Many tools on Engines, Trucks and Medic units can be utilized for initial search and rescue operations. The majority of victims are injured from falling debris and if trapped, they can be rescued by removal of surface debris.
Victims trapped by heavy debris and/or structural members require Structural Collapse Rescue Technicians. These personnel are available on the Technical Rescue Team.
Remember to use marking systems. Report, or at a minimum (during communication failure) mark, any victmis found and their condition.

34. Search Markings

35. Search Marking X Completed Search Secondary Search Completed
2120
T-82
LPG X
E-82
Entrance Marking
Secondary Search
Completed
Completed Search
As with the Structural/Hazard Marking system, orange spry paint should be used for marking. Lumber crayons or chalk should be used for additional information.
A large distinct marking will be made outside of the “Main Entrance” of each structure to be searched. This marking will be completed in two steps. First, a large (approximately 2 foot) single slash “ \ ” shall be made. Add the date/time in the top quadrant and the crew identifier in the left quadrant. After the search has been completed, a second slash “ / ” will be added to form a “ X “. Specific information will be added to all four quadrants as needed. The right quadrant is for any significant hazards found. The bottom quadrant is for the number of live or dead victims, still in the structure. Use a small x in the bottom quadrant if no victims are in the structure.
While searching inside the structure, use the same marking system room to room. Paint, Crayon or Chalk may be used. The only information added while inside the structure is any victims and hazards.
Completed secondary Searches are displayed as a circle drawn around the original search marking.
NOTE: Check on a single slash mark at the entrance to a structure, confirm the time and check on search/rescue crew. Aftershocks and secondary explosions may have compromised the interior crew.

36. Structural Triage Marking
4-1-03
0545
E-83
LPG
The identity and location of individual structures is crucial at incidents involving several structures or large areas of damage. Remark street names at intersections in a visible location. Paint house numbers outside structure (in a visible location) if available.
Structure hazards identified during initial size up activities and throughout the incident should be noted. This Structure/Hazard Mark should be made on the outside of all normal entry points. Orange spray paint seems to be the most easily seen color on most backgrounds. Line marking or downward spray cans apply the best paint marks. Lumber crayons or lumber chalk should be used to mark additional information inside the search mark itself.
Make a large (2'X2') square box with orange spray paint on the outside of the main structure (at a location easily seen from the street or access point).
Put the Date, Time, Hazardous Material, and Team/Company identifier outside the box on the right hand side (use lumber crayon or chalk to write this).
Empty Box = Structure is accessible and safe for search and rescue operations
Single Slash = Structure is significantly damaged. Some areas are relatively safe, but other areas may need cribbing, shoring, or removal of falling and collapse hazards.
X Mark in Box = Structure is not safe for search and rescue operations. May be subject to sudden additional collapse. Remote search operations may proceed at significant risk. If rescue operations are undertaken, safe haven areas and rapid evacuation routes should be created
An Arrow “ “ indicates the location of the functional entrance to the building.
NOTE: Aftershocks, secondary explosions and other factors may affect the structure. Re-evaluate and paint updated markings on structure as needed. Cross out old markings.

37. Safety Work with Special Operations (Technical Rescue &
Hazardous Materials)
Team Leaders.
Obtain Safety Briefings before working
Barricade Tape use
Collapse Zone
Monitor Structure
Know Warning signals
Know your Personal Limitations
Personal Protective Equipment
Rehydration & Rehab
CISD
Basic safety Considerations
Structural Collapse and US&R Operations can expose the Rescuer to multiple hazards:
Aftershocks, secondary explosions and continued extreme weather
Shifting and falling debris
Electrical shock
Fire and explosions
Hazardous materials and atmospheres
Water and sewage
Heat and cold exposure
Biohazards
Noise exposure
Physical and emotional critical incident stress.

38. Structural Instability
Hazards
Structural Instability
Weakened Floors, walls, roofs, beams and columns
Free standing walls
Spalling of Concrete structure, masonry
Shifting of debris from aftershocks, vibrations or secondary collapse
Attached buildings can be an exposure, or weakened by collapse

39. Hazards Loosened debris and unstable building structures overhead
Overhead Hazards
Loosened debris and unstable building structures overhead
Low Hanging power lines
Building contents that are unstable and displaced
Failing slings or cables while lifting materials

40. Broken Glass Jagged Metal Nails Wood Splinters Rough Masonry
Sharp Debris
Broken Glass
Jagged Metal
Nails
Wood Splinters
Rough Masonry

41. Sink holes/ground depression by earth movement
Slip, Trip, Fall
Fluids
Water, Ice, Snow
Sewage
Unsure Footing
Improper Footwear
Sink holes/ground depression by earth movement
Downed Power lines
Open Manhole covers

42. Elevation differences can cause difficult access and egress
Below - Grade
Atmospheric changes due to ruptured fuel, gas lines or presence of hazardous chemicals
Floods
May have caused collapse
From ruptures water/sewage lines
From ground water
Elevation differences can cause difficult access and egress

43. Utilities
Electrical
Fuel/Gas
Water
Steam
Sewage

44. Commercial Establishments
Hazardous Materials
Commercial Establishments
Hazardous Household Chemicals
Ammonia
Bleach
Household Cleaners
Solvents
Etc.
Garage

45. Fire, Smoke, Explosion
Heavy Vibrations
Inhalation Hazards
Power Tools
Noise
Scene Control

46. Safety Considerations
Scene Approach
Be Aware of Secondary Explosive Devices
Be Aware of Collapse area and Secondary collapse area
Establish Safe Zones
Be Aware of probable Hazardous Materials
Utilities
Fire Danger

47. Establish safe areas and hazard zones
Monitor building movement
Before searching voids:
Survey
Stabilize
Search
Awareness for Stress Factors
Personnel
Scene
Rehab
Enforce Safety

48. Safety Personal Protective Equipment Full PPE including:
Eye Protection
Knee Pads
Radio
Lights
Hand Light
Helmet Light
Chemical Light
Don’t rely on only one person for lighting – Always have a backup light source

49. Respiratory Protection
Safety
Respiratory Protection
Level will depend on atmospheric hazards
Cartridge Filter
SCBA
Supplied Air

50. Communications Maintain voice contact with rescuers
Communicate needs to team leaders
ALL rescuers should have a portable radio
Have pre-determined hand signals
Coordinate rescue efforts with other teams so that one team doesn’t place other team in danger
Keep team leaders advised of progress
Communications is especially important during night operations

51. On-Site Emergency Signaling Procedures
Emergency Signaling is used to alert on scene response personnel of:
Structural Instability
Secondary Devices/Explosions
Possible victim location
Hazardous Material Leaks
Other hazards that require immediate action (withdrawal, abandonment and evacuation, etc.)
Radio Announcement & portable Air Horn or Bull Horn Alert Systems are most common. Vehicle mounted air horns can also be used, if they can be heard inside of collapsed structure and around work area.
Accountability Systems will be used (Passports, PAR, and Roll-Calls).
On-Site Emergency Signaling Procedures:
Effective emergency signaling procedures are essential for the safe operation of rescue personnel operating at a disaster site. These signals must be clear and universally understood by all personnel involved in the operation. Air horns or other appropriate hailing devices shall be used to sound the appropriate signals as follows:
Cease Operation/All Quiet: 1 Long Blast (3 seconds)
verbal announcement = “Quiet!”
Evacuate the Area: 3 short blasts (1 second each)
verbal announcement = “Out, Out, Out”
Resume Operations: 1 Long and 1 Short Blast
verbal announcement = “O-Kay”
Following an Evacuation order, the Incident Commander will initiate a roll call by Division, beginning with the division most at risk.
Each Division Supervisor will account for their assigned personnel, and advise the Incident Commander.
If anyone is not accounted for, the evacuation signal will be repeated.
Note: Rapid Intervention Teams will be in a safe location and be ready to respond to the Division most at risk.

52. Responding After & During Earthquakes
Types of structural collapse rescue situations
Injured - Not Trapped
Injury caused by falling debris hitting victim or victim falling. Surface victims.
Accounts for approximately 50% of all victims.
Non-Structural Entrapment
Structure still looks like a building.
Victims are trapped by building furniture and small debris.
Locating the victim and moving the material entrapping the victim can be handled with common tools.
Usually accounts for approximately 30% of all victims.
Void Space, Non-Structural Entrapment
The building no longer looks like the original structure. Partial or complete collapse has occurred. Very hazardous rescue situation.
Victims are trapped by building contents and small debris, but are located inside void spaces.
Securing the structure with shoring is required and locating the victim using special resources may be needed.

53. Structural Collapse EMS Concerns
Majority of victims will have injuries from falling debris
Most visible surface victims will have minimal entrapment.
Victims may have vision and breathing difficulties from dust exposure and impaction.
Blast injuries may be present (hearing!).
Entrapped victims will need Technical Rescue (USAR) Teams.
Follow MCI Protocols as needed. Multiple Triage and Treatment areas may be in use during Disasters. Coordinate location and designation of these sites within the Incident Command System.
1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake Cars crushed by collapsing brick facade near Fifth and Townsend Streets. At this locality, five people were killed while leaving from work. [C.E. Meyer, U.S. Geological Survey]

54. Extended Operations Night Ops Rotating Shifts Environmental Exposure
Extended operations are common during major emergencies and disasters.
Proper illumination during low light conditions can increase efficiency of search and rescue operations and reduce the chance of injury. Use all available light sources and request lighting equipment through the Incident Command System.
It is not uncommon to have 12 hour work periods and be without outside assistance for at least 72 hours during disasters. Be prepared for disasters with a personal “72 hour” kit for yourself at work and at home for your family.
Chances of personal injury due to environmental exposure, fatigue and critical incident stress are increased during these types of events. Rehab should be ongoing and monitored within crews. Signs of fatigue and/or stress should be identified and treated immediately to reduce the chance of long term injury or disability.

55. Collapses and Crime Scene Operations
Coordination with Local Law Enforcement (PPD, FCSO, WSP), Federal agencies (ATF, FBI, etc), and Medical Examiner (Coroner).
Evidence
Preservation
Many major emergency scenes are “crime scenes”. Coordination with appropriate Law Enforcement agencies will ensure operations will consider:
Evidence preservation and procedures.
Decon with evidence collection.
Proper documentation of personal accounts and assignments during incident.

56. Technical Rescue Team When at the scene of a Structural Collapse:
Notify FCCC and the Battalion Chief and request a “Technical Rescue Team”. Provide the radio frequency and cell phone number that you can be reached at.
-A Technical Rescue Team Leader will contact you and provide:
Assistance with initial actions
Safety considerations.
Technical Rescue Team Response.
The Technical Rescue Team can be notified by:
Requesting a Technical Rescue Page-Out through SECOMM or FCCC:
Request page-out and provide contact information, Cell number & Radio frequency.