1. The Obvious View
Unit 0.2

2. Our Place in Space
Today, our scientific understanding of the cosmos extends as far as we can see, spanning the vast reaches of intergalactic space, But the modern view of the universe depicted here is in many ways the “punch line” of the story present in this class.

3. Our Place in Space
It is the culmination of countless scientific discoveries, large and small – the work of generations of astronomers.

4. Constellations in the Sky
Between sunset and sunrise on a clear night, we can see about 3000 points of light. If we include the view from the opposite side of Earth, nearly 6000 stars are visible to the unaided eye.

5. Constellations in the Sky
A natural human tendency is to see patterns and relationships among objects even when no true connection exists, and people long ago connected the brightest stars in configurations called constellations.

6. Constellations in the Sky
In the Northern Hemisphere, most constellations were named after mythological heroes and animals. Prominent in the northern night sky from October to March, the constellation Orion can be seen.

8. Constellations in the Sky
Orion is the Greek mythological hero famed, among other things, for his amorous pursuit of the Pleiades, the 7 daughters of the giant Atlas. According to Greek mythology, the gods placed the Pleiades among the stars to protect them from Orion, who still stalks them nightly across the sky.

10. Constellations in the Sky
Early astronomers had very practical reasons for studying the sky. Some constellations served as navigational guides. The star Polaris indicates north, and the near constancy of its location in the sky has aided travelers for centuries.

11. Constellations in the Sky
Other constellations served as a primitive calendar to predict planting and harvesting seasons. Many cultures knew that the appearance of certain stars on the horizon just before daybreak signaled the beginning of spring and the end of winter.

12. Constellations in the Sky
In many societies, people came to believe that there were other benefits in being able to trace the regularly changing positions of heavenly bodies.

13. Constellations in the Sky
The relative positions of stars and planets at a person’s birth were carefully studied by astrologers, who used the date to make predictions about that person’s destiny.

14. Constellations in the Sky
Thus, in a sense, astronomy and astrology arose from the same basic impulse-the desire to “see” into the future-and, indeed, for a long time they were indistinguishable from one another.

15. Constellations in the Sky
The third reason that ancient people wanted to know about constellations was because many of the cultural ceremonies and rituals were based on the appearance of certain celestial bodies in the skies, such as the Mayans, Aztecs, and Eygptians.

16. Constellations in the Sky
The stars making up a particular constellation are generally not close together in space. They merely are bright enough to observe with the naked eye and happen to lie in the same direction in the sky as seen from Earth.

18. Constellations in the Sky
Although constellation patterns have no real significance, the terminology is still used today. Constellations provide a convenient means for astronomers to specify large areas of the sky, much as geologists use continents to identify certain localities on Earth.

19. Constellations in the Sky
In all, there are 88 constellations, most visible from North America at some time during the year.

20. The Celestial Sphere
Over the course of a night, the constellations appear to move across the sky from east to west. However, ancient sky-watchers noted that the relative positions of stars remained unchanged as this night march took place.

21. The Celestial Sphere
It was natural for early astronomers to conclude that the stars were attached to a celestial sphere surrounding the Earth – a canopy of stars like an astronomical painting on a vast heavenly ceiling.

23. The Celestial Sphere
Early astronomers pictured the stars moving with the celestial sphere as it turned around a fixed Earth. The stars appear to move in circles around a point in the sky very close to Polaris (the current North Star).

25. The Celestial Sphere
From our modern standpoint, the apparent motion of the stars is the result of the spin, or rotation, not of the celestial sphere. Even though we know that the concept of the celestial sphere is incorrect, astronomers still use it as a convenient means to visualize star’s positions in the sky.

26. The Celestial Sphere
The point where Earth’s rotation axis intersects the celestial sphere in the North Hemisphere is known as the north celestial pole; it is directly above Earth’s North Pole. The star Polaris happens to lie close to the north celestial pole, which is why its direction indicates due north.

27. The Celestial Sphere
In the Southern Hemisphere, the extension of Earth’s axis in the opposite direction defines the south celestial pole. There are no bright stars conveniently located near the south celestial pole and hence, no South Star.

28. The Celestial Sphere
Midway between the north and south celestial poles lies the celestial equator, representing the intersection of Earth’s equatorial plane with the celestial sphere.

30. Celestial Coordinates
The simplest method of locating stars in the sky is to specify their constellation and then rank the stars in that constellation in order of brightness. The brightest star is denoted by the Greek letter α, the second by β, and so on.

31. Labeling of Stars

32. Celestial Coordinates
Because there are many more stars in any given constellation than there are letters in the Greek alphabet, this method is of limited use. For naked-eyed astronomy, however, where only bright stars are involved, it is sufficient.

33. Celestial Coordinates
For more precise measurements, astronomers find it helpful to use a system of celestial coordinates on the sky. If we think of the stars being attached to the celestial sphere centered on Earth, then the familiar system of latitude and longitude, extends naturally to the sky.

34. Celestial Coordinates
The celestial analogs of latitude and longitude are called declination and right ascension, respectively. Just as latitude and longitude are tied Earth, right ascension and declination are fixed on the celestial sphere.

35. Celestial Coordinates
Although the stars appear to move across the sky because of Earth’s rotation, their celestial coordinates remain constant over the course of the night.

37. Celestial Coordinates
Declination is measured in degrees north or south of the celestial equator, just like latitude. The celestial equator is at a declination of 0°, the celestial north pole at +90°, and the celestial south pole at -90°.

38. Celestial Coordinates
Right ascension is measured in angular units called hours, minutes, and seconds, and it increases in the eastward direction. Like the choice of the Greenwich Meridian as the 0 point of longitude on Earth, the 0 right ascension is taken at the position of the Sun at the instant of the vernal equinox.