1. Biology 20 Chapter 11 Blood and Immune System
Nelson Pages 348 – 375

2. Dividing the cell into its parts (or fractions) is called cell fractionation and is achieved by the process of centrifugation using a centrifuge.

3. 11.1 Components of Blood 55 % fluid or plasma 45 % blood cells
Average 70 kg person has about 5 L of blood
Blood
55 % fluid or plasma
45 % blood cells
Plasma
90 % H2O
Also:
Proteins, glucose, vitamins, minerals, dissolved gases, and waste products of metabolism

4. Types of Plasma Proteins
Functions
Albumins
Osmotic balance – maintain H2O levels
Globulins (immunoglobulins)
Antibodies, immunity
Fibrinogen
Blood clotting

5. I.) Erythrocytes
Red blood cells or RBC’s
Transport O2
Packed with hemoglobin
Greatly increases capacity of RBC to carry O2, by 70 X
Heme – iron containing pigment
Globin – protein structure
Oxyhemoglobin - gives blood its red color

6. Are enucleated (no nucleus) when mature
RBC’s
Are biconcave
Greater surface area for gas exchange
Are enucleated (no nucleus) when mature
More room for cell to carry hemoglobin
Are made in bone marrow – erythropoieses
Are broken down by spleen and liver
Heme is transformed into bile pigments
Iron returns to liver for storage and bone marrow for reuse

7. RBC’s and low O2 levels
Exercise, high altitude, hemorrhage
Lowers O2 levels in blood  kidneys release REF  RBC production in bone marrow
Anemia
Reduction in blood O2 due to low levels of hemoglobin or poor RBC production
Causes: hemorrhage, dietary deficiency in iron

8. II.) Leukocytes b) Agranulocytes
White blood cells or WBC’s
Outnumbered by RBC’s
Have a nucleus
Types of WBC’s
a.) Granulocytes
b) Agranulocytes
Why You Are Still Alive -

9. c) Phagocytes Destroy invading microbes by phagocytosis
Diapedesis – move like an amoeba
Lysosomes release digestive enzymes
Digests microbe as well as itself
Pus forms – fragments of WBC and invader
Phagocytosis -
A colored scanning electron micrograph of a macrophage engulfing a parasite of the Leishmania genus. To defend the body, macrophages will surround a foreign invader, bring it inside the cell, then use enzymes to digest the material.

10. Other WBC’s form antibodies which interfere with invading microbes
Types of Phagocytes:
a.) Neutrophils:
Toxins, hemorrhage, fever, burns
b.) Eosinophils:
Allergies and parasitic worms
c.) Basophils:
Damage to tissues
Other WBC’s form antibodies which interfere with invading microbes

11. Neutrophils are very active in phagocyting bacteria and are present in large amount in the pus of wounds.

12. Eosinophils attack parasites and phagocyte antigen- antibody complexes.

13. Basophil secrete anti- coagulant and vasodilatory substances as histamines and serotonin. Even if they have a phagocytory capability, their main function is secreting substances which mediate the hypersensitivity reaction.

14. The lymphocytes are the main constituents of the immune system which is a defense against the attack of pathogenic micro- organisms such as viruses, bacteria, fungi and protista. Lymphocytes yield antibodies and arrange them on their membrane.
Two types: B and T lymphocytes

15. Monocytes are the precursors of macrophages
Monocytes are the precursors of macrophages. After attaining maturity in the bone marrow, enter the blood circulation. Then they migrate into the connective tissue, where they become macrophages and move within the tissues. In the presence of an inflammation site, monocytes quickly migrate from the blood vessel and start an intense phagocytory activity.

16. III.) Platelets A.k.a thrombocytes Do not contain a nucleus
Produced in bone marrow
Move through blood vessels and initiate blood clotting reactions

17. Blood clotting Microbes cannot enter but WBC’s can Prevent blood loss
wraps around cut and seals it
converted into fibrin
splices fibrinogen
becomes thrombin
Ca 2+ and thromboplastin activates prothrombin
platelet breaks apart and releases thrombo-plastin
Platelet strikes a torn blood vessel
Prevent blood loss
Process:
Microbes cannot enter but WBC’s can

19. Harmful Blood Clots Pulmonary, coronary, cerebral Types:
Thrombus – blocks a blood vessel
Types:
Coronary
Cerebral – stroke
If a blood clot moves or dislodges, it becomes an embolus
Types of embolisms:
Pulmonary, coronary, cerebral
Hemophilia
An inherited defect in the clotting process

20. The Discovery of Blood Types
Experiments with blood transfusions, the transfer of blood or blood components into a person's blood stream, have been carried out for hundreds of years. Many patients have died and it was not until 1901, when the Austrian Karl Landsteiner discovered human blood groups, that blood transfusions became safer.
Mixing blood from two individuals can lead to blood clumping or agglutination. This can have fatal consequences. Karl Landsteiner discovered that blood clumping was an immunological reaction which occurs when the receiver of a blood transfusion has antibodies against the donor blood cells.
Karl Landsteiner's work made it possible to determine blood types and thus paved the way for blood transfusions to be carried out safely. For this discovery he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1930.

21. Important Terms Antigen
Molecules that cause the synthesis of antibodies when injected into another organism
Antibody
Proteins found in blood that attack and neutralize substances that are foreign to the body

22. What are the different blood groups?
The differences in human blood are due to the presence or absence of certain protein molecules called antigens (agglutinogens) and antibodies (agglutinins). The antigens are located on the surface of the red blood cells and the antibodies are in the blood plasma.
Individuals have different types and combinations of these molecules. The blood group you belong to depends on what you have inherited from your parents.

23. AB0 blood grouping system
According to the AB0 blood typing system there are four different kinds of blood types: A, B, AB or 0
Blood group A If you belong to the blood group A, you have A antigens on the surface of your red blood cells and B antibodies in your blood plasma.
Blood group B If you belong to the blood group B, you have B antigens on the surface of your red blood cells and A antibodies in your blood plasma.

24. BLOOD TYPES CONTINUED…
Blood group AB If you belong to the blood group AB, you have both A and B antigens on the surface of your red blood cells and no A or B antibodies at all in your blood plasma.
Blood group 0 If you belong to the blood group 0, you have neither A or B antigens on the surface of your red blood cells but you have both A and B antibodies in your blood plasma.

25. ABO BLOOD TYPE SUMMARY:

26. Agglutination Reaction

27. Blood group notation
According to above blood grouping systems, you can belong to either of following 8 blood groups:
A Rh+
(34%)
B Rh+
(9%)
AB Rh+
(3%)
0 Rh+
(38%)
A Rh-
(6%)
B Rh-
(2%)
AB Rh-
(1%)
0 Rh-
(7%)

28. Blood typing – how do you find out to which blood group someone belongs?
1. You mix the blood with three different reagents including either of the three different antibodies, A, B or Rh antibodies.
2. Then you take a look at what has happened. In which mixtures has agglutination occurred? The agglutination indicates that the blood has reacted with a certain antibody and therefore is not compatible with blood containing that kind of antibody. If the blood does not agglutinate, it indicates that the blood does not have the antigens binding the special antibody in the reagent.
3.If you know which antigens are in the person's blood, it's easy to figure out which blood group he or she belongs to!
Try your luck with the Blood typing game!!!

29. Blood transfusions – who can receive blood from whom?
People with blood group 0 are called "universal donors" and people with blood group AB are called "universal receivers."
Universal Donors!
Universal Recipients!

30. Rh factor blood grouping system
Many people also have a so called Rh factor on the red blood cell's surface.
This is also an antigen and those who have it are called Rh+. Those who haven't are called Rh-. A person with Rh- blood does not have Rh antibodies naturally in the blood plasma. But a person with Rh- blood can develop Rh antibodies in the blood plasma if he or she receives blood from a person with Rh+ blood, whose Rh antigens can trigger the production of Rh antibodies. A person with Rh+ blood can receive blood from a person with Rh- blood without any problems.

31. Rh Blood Group
First studied in rhesus monkeys
Types
Rh positive: Have these antigens present on surface of RBCs
Rh negative: Do not have these antigens present
Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN)
Mother produces anti-Rh antibodies that cross placenta and cause agglutination and hemolysis of fetal RBCs

32. Erythroblastosis Fetalis

33. Diagnostic Blood Tests
Type and crossmatch
Blood typing determines the ABO and Rh blood groups of a blood sample. A crossmatch tests for agglutination reactions between donor and recipient blood
Complete blood count……The complete blood count consists of the following: red blood cell count, hemoglobin measurement (grams of hemoglobin per 100mL of blood), hematocrit measurement (percent volume of red blood cells), and white blood cell count

34. Diagnostic Blood Tests
Differential White blood count
It determines the percentage of each type of white blood cell
Clotting
Platelet count and prothrombin time measures the ability of the blood to clot
Blood chemistry….The composition of materials dissolved or suspended in plasma (e.g. glucose, urea, nitrogen, bilirubin and cholesterol) can be used to assess the functioning and status of the body’s system

35. 11.2 The Body’s Line of Defense Pages 357 - 366
Biology 20 Unit D

36. 11.2 The Body’s Line of Defence
Pathogen: an organism causing disease
An infectious disease may be caused by:
Viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, flatworms and roundworms
Staphylococcus aureus can be pathogen in the right conditions on the surface of the skin (causing impetigo and numerous other skin conditions), but it is always pathogen on the inside of the body. Unfortunately, the treatment for Staphylococcus aureus rarely works once the bacterium enters the bloodstream.
Staphylococcus aureus can be pathogen in the right conditions on the surface of the skin (causing impetigo and other skin conditions)

37. Parasites Head Lice (adult stage)
Malaria: Single-celled protozoan parasites of the genus Plasmodium. Four species infect humans by entering the bloodstream.
Giardia: a fungi that infects the intestines of animals causing “beaver fever”. People most often get it from drinking contaminated water
Head Lice (adult stage)

38. Tapeworms, ringworms, and other Pathogens

39. Viruses
                                                                      Human Immunodeficiency Virus (AIDS)
Influenza Virus (Flu)

40. Bacteria Salmonella typhimurium (Food Poisoning)
Syphilis- is an infectious venereal disease caused by the spirochete Treponema pallidum

41. I.) First Line of Defence: nonspecific and external (P357)
Skin – protective
Acidic secretions (pH of 3 – 5)
Respiratory tract (windpipe) – mucus and cilia sweep foreign material away from lung
Stomach – acids and protein digesting enzymes destroy microbes
Tears, saliva, mucous secretions – lysozyme (enzyme) destroys bacterial cell walls

42. II.) Second Line of Defence – nonspecific and internal (P357)
A. Phagocytes (WBC’s) destroy microbes

43. Types of Phagocytes

44. Phagocytosis Ingestion of invading microbes by certain WBCs
Diagram on right: A neutrophil extracellular trap is a set of extracellular fibres generated by a neutrophil that bind Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria.[1]
Recently, scientists in Germany described a novel tool with which neutrophils enhance killing of extracellular pathogens while minimizing damage to the host cells. Upon in vitro activation with the pharmacological agent phorbol myristate acetate (PMA), IL-8 or LPS, neutrophils release granule proteins and chromatin to form an extracellular fibril matrix, i.e. neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) through an active process.[1]

45. Pus - remaining fragments of protein, dead WBCs, digested invader

46. B. INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE
Tissue damage due to physical injury Initiates an inflammatory response
Nonspecific response that results in swelling, heat, and pain
Clues to second line of defence:
Pus
Inflammation

47. C. Fever – example of system wide response to infection
Neutrophils and macrophages digest invaders
Release chemicals
Reach hypothalamus
Reset body temperature to about 40OC
Fever makes it difficult for harmful bacteria to survive
Fevers  40OC can be unsafe
Enzymes start to denature

48. D. Protective Proteins
- prevent multiplication of bacteria and viruses
i) complement
active against bacteria
once activated, some complements form pores in bacterial cell walls and membranes
pores allow salts and fluids to enter bacterial cell
bacterium expands until it bursts

49. E. interferon active against viruses
tissue cells infected by viruses produce and secrete interferon
chemical binds to uninfected cells
these cells now produce substances that interfere with viral replication

50. III.) The Immune Response (The Third Line of Defence)
slower, but more specific
white blood cells and lymph system are involved
WBC respond to antigens: any substance recognized as foreign to the body
often antigens are part of a bacterial cell wall, viral coat, or foreign cell membrane

51. Cells of the Immune System Overview:

53. Immune system detects an antigen
T-cells multiply which attack the invader directly
B-cells multiply which produce antibodies
called cell-mediated immunity:
cells move thru blood and lymph
Called antibody mediated immunity: antibodies move thru blood and lymph
target: bacteria,
viruses, etc. that have toxins infected host cells; cancer cells, implanted
tissues
target: free bacteria, viruses, and in body fluids

54. 1. Cell-Mediated Immunity
a macrophage engulfs a bacterium, then the bacterial antigen, along with an identification protein, will be displayed on the macrophage membrane
appropriate T-cell and its receptor is presented with the antigen, and is now activated
T-cell then grows and divides into the following:
a) Helper T-cell
directly stimulates a B-cell by presenting an antigen to it

55. lymphokines: chemicals which stimulate immune cells to divide
b) Killer T-cell
release a chemical which forms a pore in foreign cell membrane bearing an antigen; cell swells and bursts
c) Suppressor T-cells
number increases slowly
suppress immune response
d) Memory T-cells
recognizes original invading antigen; can last a life-time
lymphokines: chemicals which stimulate immune cells to divide

56. 2. Antibody-Mediated Immunity
B-cells produce antibodies: proteins which combine with and inactivate antigens
antigen binds to membrane-bound
antibody on B-cell
B-cell divides into:
many plasma cells which produce and release antibodies into blood and lymph
memory B-cells that remain in bloodstream
antibody level increases,
and antigens disappear from body

57. Summary of 3rd Line of Defence

60. Killer T-Cells (cytotoxic T cell) Destroy infected host cells…kill the virus where it’s made!

61. Animations Worth Checking Out!

62. Biology 20 Unit D
Section 11.3: Malfunctions of the Immune System – Pages
Directions: READ Section 11.3 In the TEXTBOOK and complete your own notes using the following slides as a guide.

63. 11.3 Malfunctions of the Immune System
Can cause two types of problems:
Immunodeficiency diseases
Caused by:
Virus (HIV)
Hereditary condition (severe combined immunodeficiency) SCID
Gene mutation
Inability to produce T and B cells
Exposure to cancer therapy or use of anti – inflammatory drugs
Inappropriate attacks of immune system against non – threatening agents
Allergies
Autoimmune disorders

64. Immune system mistakes harmless cells as harmful Symptoms:
I.) Allergies
Immune system mistakes harmless cells as harmful
Symptoms:
Tissue swelling
Mucus secretion
Constricted air passages

66. Severe allergic reactions may cause anaphylactic reactions
Hives, itching, swelling
Cells that “believe” they are in danger release bradykinin
Stimulates release of histamine
Produced by basophils (WBCs) and mast cells
Increases permeability of cells of capillaries
Causes reddening
Proteins and WBCs leave capillary in search of microbe
Hypertonic, thus, water follows by diffusion

67. Reactions may be brought on by:
Medications, vaccines, foods
Anaphylactic shock can occur quickly
Weakness, sweating, difficulty breathing
Nausea, diarrhoea, drop in blood pressure
Treatments or prevention:
Antihistamines
Medical alert bracelet or necklace
Read labels

68. II.) Autoimmune Disorders
Immune system mistakenly attacks own cells of body
Renegade lymphocytes treat body’s cells as foreign and attack own body’s cells
Usually held in check
Mutated T and B cells
Theory: suppressors secrete a substance that tells macrophage to engulf renegade cells

69. Failure of suppressor T cells to control renegade lymphocytes
Rheumatoid arthritis
Against connective tissue of joints
Rheumatic fever
Scars heart muscle
Type I diabetes
Against insulin – producing cells of pancreas
Lupus
Accumulation of antigen – antibody complexes that build up on walls of blood vessels, kidneys, joints, and skin
Multiple sclerosis
Against myelin sheath of nerve cells

70. III.) Organ Transplant Rejection
Main challenge is immune system’s ability to distinguish “self” from “nonself”
Donor organ is identified by distinctive protein markers on its cell membranes
Major histocompatability complex (MHC)
Unique to each individual
Organ recipient makes antibodies designed to destroy foreign invader

71. Attempts are made to match MHC of the tissues of donors and recipients as closely as possible
Close relatives
Recently deceased donors
To reduce rejection, immunosuppressant drugs are administered
Also reduces immune system’s ability to fight off invading microbes
Place patients at risk for infections

72. Organ Transplants in Alberta
Alberta’s Capital Health Regional Transplant Program
At the U of A Hospital and Stollery Children’s Hospital
HOPE (human organ procurement and exchange)
Coordination, recovery, and distribution of organs in Alberta
Tissues include: eyes (cornea and sclera), skin, heart valves, and bone

73. IV.) Stem Cell Research Stem cells Are pluripotent
Can give rise to different types of body cells
Can replace pancreatic islet cells that have been damaged
Can repair damaged cartilage or cardiac tissue
Exist in adult skin stems cells as multipotent stem cells
Can be directed to become neurons or muscle cells

74. Weakening of suppressor T cells:
Drugs or serious infections
Decline with age
Some people are born with defective suppressor T cells
Treatment
Immune suppressing drugs
Reduce intensity of renegade cells

75. Autoimmune disease
Immune system mistakenly attacks own cells of body
Mutated T and B cells
Failure of suppressor T cells

76. Attempts are made to match MHC of the tissues of donors and recipients as closely as possible
Close relatives
Recently deceased donors
To reduce rejection, immunosuppressant drugs are administered
Also reduces immune system’s ability to fight off invading microbes
Place patients at risk for infections