1. How consumers see the world and themselves
Part B
How consumers see the world and themselves
Chapter 4
Perception

2. Perception defined
Perception is the process by which physical sensations such as sights, sounds and smells are selected, organised and interpreted. The eventual interpretation of a stimulus allows it to be assigned meaning. A perceptual map is a widely used marketing tool which evaluates the relative standing of competing brands along relevant dimensions.

3. The perceptual process
Figure 4.1 An overview of the perceptual process

4. The stages of a perceptual process
Primitive categorisation, in which the basic characteristics of a stimulus are isolated.
Cue check, in which the characteristics are analysed in preparation for the selection of a schema.
Confirmation check, in which the schema is selected.
Confirmation completion, in which a decision is made as to what the stimulus is.

5. The perceptual process
Figure 4.2 Perceptual map of the Burberry brand, relative to competitors

6. Sensory systems
Marketing stimuli have important sensory qualities. We rely on colours, odours, sounds, tastes and even the ‘feel’ of products when forming evaluations of them.
Not all sensations successfully make their way through the perceptual process. Many stimuli compete for our attention, and the majority are not noticed or comprehended.

7. Sensory systems (Continued)
People have different thresholds of perception. A stimulus must be presented at a certain level of intensity before it can be detected by sensory receptors. In addition, a consumer’s ability to detect whether two stimuli are different (the differential threshold) is an important issue in many marketing contexts, such as changing a package design, altering the size of a product or reducing its price.
Some of the factors that determine which stimuli (above the threshold level) are perceived are the amount of exposure to the stimulus, how much attention it generates and how it is interpreted. In an increasingly crowded stimulus environment, advertising clutter occurs when too many marketing-related messages compete for attention.

8. Sensory systems (Continued)
Vision – marketers rely heavily on visual elements in advertising, store design and packaging. Colours are rich in symbolic value and cultural meanings and can be critical spurs to sales.
Smell – odours can stir the emotions or have a calming effect, they can invoke memories or relieve stress.
Sound – can affect people’s feelings and behaviours.
Touch – tactile cues can have symbolic meaning.
Taste – can contribute to our experiences of many products.

9. Sensory thresholds
Absolute threshold – the minimum amount of stimulation that can be detected on a sensory channel.
Differential threshold – the ability of a sensory system to detect changes or differences between two stimuli. The issue of when or if a change will be noticed is relevant to many marketing situations.
The minimum change in a stimulus that can be detected is known as the JND – Just Noticeable Difference.
Weber’s Law states that the amount of change that is necessary to be noticed is related to the original intensity of the stimulus.

10. Perceptual selection
Consumers are often in a state of sensory overload, exposed to too much information and are unable or unwilling to process all of the information at their disposal.
Perceptual selectivity occurs when people attend to only a small portion of the stimuli that they are exposed to.

11. Augmented reality
Web-based AR – these techniques use your PC and webcam to offer an enhanced experience, often via a marker, image or through motion capture.
Kiosk-based AR – this is similar to web-based AR, but you can often find more powerful applications that use 3D or facial tracking.
Mobile AR – these applications use the viewfinder on a mobile phone to access enhanced digital information.

12. Interpretation
A stimulus that is attended to is not perceived in isolation. It is classified and organised according to principles of perceptual organisation. These principles are guided by a gestalt or overall pattern. Specific grouping principles include closure, similarity and figure-ground relationships.
The final step in the process of perception is interpretation. We make sense of the world through the interpretation of signs: icons, indexes and symbols. This interpretation is often shared by others, thus forming common languages and cultures. The degree to which the symbolism is consistent with our previous experience affects the meaning we assign to related objects. Every marketing message contains a relationship between the product, the sign or symbol and the interpretation of meaning.

13. Interpretation: deciding what things mean
Gestalt psychology – people derive meaning from the totality of a set of stimuli rather than from any one individual stimuli.
Principle of closure – consumers tend to perceive an incomplete picture as complete, filling in the blanks based on previous experience.
Principle of similarity – consumers tend to group together objects that share similar physical characteristics.
Figure ground principle – where one part of the stimulus will dominate while others recede into the background.

14. The perceptual process
Figure 4.3 Principles of stimulus organisation derived from gestalt psychology

15. The role of symbolism
Figure 4.4 Relationship of components in semiotic analysis of meaning

16. The role of symbolism in interpretation
Signs function on several levels.
The intended meaning may be literal (e.g. an icon like a street sign with a picture of children playing).
The meaning may be indexical; it relies on shared characteristics (e.g. the red in a stop sign means danger).
Finally, meaning can be conveyed by a symbol, where an image is given meaning by convention or by agreement by members of a society (e.g. stop signs are octagonal, whereas yield signs are triangular).