1. Lecture 07 Genalin Lagman Taguiam Fall 2012-2013
Memory
Lecture 07
Genalin Lagman Taguiam
Fall

2. Course outcome
At the end of the week’s activity, the students should be able to
identify the types of memory
describe how to enhance memory

3. Memory allows us to store information for later use
three processes involved in memory
Encoding
the process we use to transform information so that it can be stored
transforming the data into a meaningful form such as an association with an existing memory, an image, or a sound.

4. Memory three processes involved in memory Storage Retrieval
holding onto the information
it means that a physiological change must occur for the memory to be stored
Retrieval
bringing the memory out of storage and reversing the process of encoding
return the information to a form similar to what we stored.

5. Memory

6. Memory Storage Capabilities
Sensory Memory
refers to the information we receive through the senses
very brief lasting only as much as a few seconds
Short Term Memory (STM)
Long term memory (LTM)

7. Short Term Memory (STM)
takes over when the information in our sensory memory is transferred to our consciousness or our awareness (Engle, Cantor, & Carullo, 1993; Laming, 1992). 
the capacity for holding a small amount of information in mind in an active, readily available state for a short period of time
the information that is currently active such as reading this page, talking to a friend, or writing a paper.

8. Short Term Memory (STM)
last longer than sensory memory (up to 30 seconds or so), but it still has a very limited capacity.
Memory span
The capacity of short-term memory
In a memory span test, the experimenter presents lists of items (e.g. digits or words) of increasing length.
An individual's span is determined as the longest list length that he or she can recall correctly in the given order on at least half of all trials.

9. Short Term Memory (STM)
According to research, we can remember approximately 5 to 9 (7 +/- 2) bits of information in our short term memory at any given time (Miller, 1956)
In order to overcome the limitation of short-term memory, and retain information for longer, information must be periodically repeated or rehearsed
either by articulating it out loud or by mentally simulating such articulation.
In this way, the information will re-enter the short- term store and be retained for a further period.

10. Comparison between sensory memory and short-term memory
7+/- 2 items in healthy adults
Whatever you see or hear at one moment
Capacity
A period of seconds if not rehearsed
Fraction of a second
Duration
You look up a telephone number, remembering it long enough to dial it
You see something for an instant and then recall a detail about it
Example

11. Three Basic Operations in STM
Iconic memory 
The ability to hold visual images.
Acoustic memory 
The ability to hold sounds.
Acoustic memory can be held longer than iconic memory.
Working memory 
An active process to keep it until it is put to use (think of a phone number you'll repeat to yourself until you can dial it on the phone).
Note that the goal is not really to move the information from STM to LTM, but merely put the information to immediate use.

12. Reasons why information is stored in STM
primacy effect
information that occurs first is typically remembered better than information occurring later
When given a list of words or numbers, the first word or number is usually remembered due to rehearsing this more than other information
recency effect 
often the last bit of information is also remembered better because not as much time has past; time which results in forgetting

13. Reasons why information is stored in STM
distinctiveness 
if something stands out from information around it, it is often remembered better. 
Any distinctive information is easier to remember than that which is similar, usual, or mundane.
frequency effect
rehearsal, as stated in the first example, results in better memory. 
Remember trying to memorize a formula for your math class.  The more you went over it, the better you knew it.  

14. Reasons why information is stored in STM
associations 
when we associate or attach information to other information it becomes easier to remember.
Many of us use this strategy in our professions and everyday life in the form of acronyms.  
reconstruction 
sometimes we actually fill in the blanks in our memory. 
In other words, when trying to get a complete picture in our minds, we will make up the missing parts, often without any realization that this is occurring.

15. Short Term Memory (STM)
Displacement
the new information will push out part of the old information
Chunking
the process by which one can expand his/her ability to remember things in the short term.
process by which a person organizes material into meaningful groups
can greatly increase a person's recall capacity
allows the brain to automatically group certain items together, hence the ability to remember and learn better

16. Long Term Memory (LTM)
Relatively permanent and practically unlimited in terms of its storage capacity.
Schemas are mental models of the world
Information in LTM is stored in interrelated networks of these schemas.
These, in turn, form intricate knowledge structures.
Related schemas are linked together, and information that activates one schema also activates others that are closely linked.
This is how we recall relevant knowledge when similar information is presented.
guide us by diverting our attention to relevant information and allow us to disregard what is not important.

17. Subcategories of Long Term Memory (LTM)
Declarative memory
memories for facts, life events, and information about our environment
includes semantic memory
factual knowledge like the meaning of words, concepts, and our ability to do math (Lesch & Pollatsek, 1993, Rohrer et al., 1995)
episodic memory
memories for events and situations (Goldringer, 1996; Kliegel & Lindberger, 1993)

18. Subcategories of Long Term Memory (LTM)
Non -declarative (or implicit) memory.
These are memories we have stored due to extensive practice, conditioning, or habits
When you brush your teeth, write your name, or scratch your eye, you do this with ease because you previously stored these movements and can recall them with ease

19. How to improve our memory
SQ3R method 
Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review
Developed by psychologist Francis Robinson in 1941
Survey
Scan the material you will be reading. Take only a few minutes to do this.
Look over the material, taking in the headings, subheadings, and any charts or illustrations.
This will give you an idea of what you will be reading and will prepare your brain for how it will be organized.

20. How to improve our memory
SQ3R method 
Question
create questions that will be answered in your reading.
Read
After you've come up with a list of questions, read through the material and write down the answers to your questions.
Recite
To help you recall the information in the future, recite the answers and any other key points you encountered in the material.
Review
To finish and set the information in your long-term memory, review the material once again, while continuing to recite important points and the answers to your questions.

21. How to improve our memory
Mnemonics
are strategies, such as a rhyme or formula, that are used to improve memory and help you retain and retrieve the information by making use of the information already stored in your long-term memory. 

23. References
 Kalat, J. W. (2008). Introduction to Psychology 8th Edition. (pp ; ) USA: Thomson Learning, Inc
Smith, E., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Fredrickson, B., & Loftus, G. (2003). Atkinson's and Hilgard's Introduction to Psychology 14th Edition. (pp ; ; ) Singapore: Thomson Learning.