1. AP Language and Composition
Logical Fallacies
AP Language and Composition
Adapted from a handout by Scott Gilbert:

2. Slippery Slope
A slippery slope argument suggests that one step will inevitably lead to more (eventually negative) steps. A slippery slope argument is problematic because it uses speculation and exaggeration to stir up emotions against the downward slipping. This fallacy can be avoided by logically providing evidence of the eventuality rather than just speculation.
EXAMPLE - “If we force public elementary school pupils to wear uniforms, eventually we will require middle school and high school students to wear uniforms. Next thing you know, we will be requiring college students to wear uniforms.”

3. Hasty Generalization
Hasty generalizations base an argument on insufficient evidence. Writers may draw conclusions too quickly, not considering the whole issue.
EXAMPLE - Suppose a person attends two parties at a fraternity house. He then concludes that all fraternities are about nothing other than partying. This evidence is too limited to draw an adequate conclusion.

4. Non Sequitur
A non-sequitur argument doesn’t follow a logical sequence. The conclusion does not logically follow the premises.
EXAMPLE -
Premise - People love walking on beaches.
Premise - Beaches are made of sand.
Conclusion - Having sand floors in homes would be a great idea.
This is clearly an illogical conclusion. Just because people love walking on the beach, that doesn’t mean they want sand in their homes.

5. Post Hoc argument
A post hoc argument assumes a faulty causal relationship between two events. Just because one event comes after another event, that doesn’t mean that the first event caused the second event.
EXAMPLE - Ever since Governor Smith took over, the state’s economy has been great.
This is a post hoc argument because it assumes a causal relationship between two events that may be coincidental.

6. Ad Hominem
An ad hominem argument attacks the opponent rather than the opponent’s argument. Ad hominem arguments are extremely popular in politics.
EXAMPLE - My opponent has only lived in the state of Michigan for six years. He spent most of his life in Ohio. Why should the good people of Michigan trust a guy from Ohio to run their government?
EXAMPLES - “Poor George. He was born with a silver foot in his mouth.” - Anne Richards at the 1988 Democratic National Convention (referring to then Vice President George H.W. Bush)

7. False Authority
False authority is a tactic used by many writers, especially in advertising. An authority in one field may know nothing of another field. Being knowledgeable in one area doesn’t constitute knowledge in other areas.
EXAMPLE - I founded and ran a successful business for thirty years; I am clearly qualified to fix the problems with this school system.
EXAMPLE - I have been a high school classroom teacher for twenty-two years; I am sure that I could manage something as simple as a restaurant.

8. Show This Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c5QdzqbCxgI
Video Clip - Watch the following clip. Briefly note what you learn about each of the logical fallacies mentioned.
Show This Video:

9. Equivocation
Equivocation happens when the writer makes use of a word’s multiple meanings and changes the meanings in the middle of the argument without telling the audience about the shift. Often when we use vague or ambiguous words like “right,” “justice,” or “experience,” we do not clarify exactly what we mean.
EXAMPLE - When representing himself in court, a defendant said, “I have told the truth, and I have always heard that the truth would set me free.” In this case, the arguer switches the meaning of truth (from truth as an accurate representation of events to truth as a religious absolute).
EXAMPLE - I would like to work for social justice in America. (Social justice is a very ambiguous term which means different things to different people.)

10. Show This Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bmIqWT7qMj4&t=11s
Video Clip - Watch the following clip. Briefly note what you learn about equivocation.
Show This Video:

11. Straw man
Opposing a straw man is a tactic used by many writers because they find it easier to refute an oversimplified opposition. Writers may also pick only the opposition’s weakest or most insignificant point to refute. Doing so diverts attention from the real issues and rarely, if ever, leads to resolution or truth.
EXAMPLE - Supporters of uniforms believe that the only way to ensure discipline in schools is through rigid conformity.
This is an oversimplification / misrepresentation of the argument for uniforms. It is highly unlikely that supporters of uniforms are arguing for more conformity in schools.

12. Show This Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cGZkCPo7tC0
Video Clip - Watch the following clip. Briefly note what you learn about opposing a straw man.
Show This Video:

13. Faulty Analogy
A faulty analogy leads to a faulty conclusions. Writers often use similar situations to explain a relationship. Sometimes, though, these extended comparisons and metaphors attempt to relate ideas or situations that aren’t really that similar.
FALSE ANALOGY: Forcing students to attend cultural events is like herding cattle to slaughter. The students stampede in to the event where they are systematically ‘put to sleep’ by the program.

14. Show This Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S8LydU2P7Yw
Video Clip - Watch the following clip. Briefly note what you learn about faulty analogies.
Show This Video:

15. Red Herring
Red herrings have little relevance to the argument at hand. Desperate arguers often try to change the ground of the argument by changing the subject. The new argument is usually related to the original argument, but does little to resolve it.
EXAMPLE - Mike: It is morally wrong to cheat on your spouse: why on earth would you have done that?
Ken: But what is morality exactly?
Mike: It’s a code of conduct shared by cultures.
Ken: But who creates this code?...

16. Ignoring the Question
Ignoring the question is similar to presenting a red herring. Rather than answering the question that has been asked or addressing the issue at hand, the writer shifts focus, supplying an unrelated argument.
EXAMPLE: During a press conference, a political candidate is asked a pointed, specific question about some potentially illegal fund-raising activity. Instead of answering the allegations, the candidate gives a rousing speech thanking all of his financial supporters.

17. Show This Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QJCqjKk4-jo
Video Clip - Watch the following clip. Briefly note what you learn about red herrings and ignoring the question.
Show This Video:

18. Begging the Question
Begging the question (or circular logic) happens when the writer presents an arguable point as a fact that supports the argument. This error leads to an argument that goes around and around, with evidence making the same claim as the proposition.
EXAMPLE - These movies are so popular because they make so much money.
(The money made is a measure of popularity, not a supporting argument).
EXAMPLE - We need a border wall because it is necessary to protect the border.
(The arguer needs to explain how / why a border wall would be effective.)

19. Show This Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OAXKc-rvMa8
Video Clip - Watch the following clip. Briefly note what you learn about begging the question.
Show This Video:

20. Bandwagon Fallacy
Bandwagon appeals try to get everyone on board. Writers who use this approach try to convince readers that everyone else believes something, so the readers should also. However, an argument’s validity has NOTHING to do with its popularity.
EXAMPLE - Sixty-two percent of Americans have no problem with the NSA monitoring the calls and activities of American citizens. If the majority of citizens do not have a problem with this type of surveillance, why should it be considered a problem?

21. Show This Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IZMnvxye20w
Video Clip - Watch the following clip. Briefly note what you learn about the bandwagon fallacy.
Show This Video:

22. False Dilemma / False Either/Or
Either / or arguments (false dilemma) reduce complex issues to black and white choices. Most issues will have a number of choices for resolution; however, the arguer will only leave his audience with two choices.
EXAMPLE - Either we adopt a single-payer health system, or Americans will continue to die in large numbers due to a lack of health care.
This argument ignores alternatives to single-payer systems.

23. Show This Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9ua74hdBhfI
Video Clip - Watch the following clip. Briefly note what you learn about the either/or fallacy.
Show This Video:

24. Tu Quoque - You’re Another
Tu quoque (you’re another) fallacies avoid the real argument by making similar charges against the opponent.
EXAMPLE - How can the police ticket me for speeding? I see cops speeding all the time?
EXAMPLE - I acknowledge that the senator was not forthcoming with the truth, but the reality is that all politicians lie.

25. Video Clips - Watch the following clips
Video Clips - Watch the following clips. Briefly note what you learn about the bandwagon fallacy, false dilemmas, and the tu quoque fallacy.
Show These Videos: