Processes of Learning.

Processes of Learning

Critically evaluate the learning theories and methodologies which form the basis of the module.
This criterion required you analyse the learning theories that will be covered in session two and analyse in a critical way the validity of this methodology. You can use extracts from the journal to give 'voice' to how you experienced the start of the module. [ 'how did you feel'] Were you sympathetic to the approach to learning and teaching or was it challenging, and if so why? How do you feel now and would you be an advocate and supporter of this approach in a work environment. If you are not convinced, why not and defend your arguments.

Aims of the session Share experiences of learning in the group
Explore the history and development of learning theory Recognize and address the barriers to individual learning Develop a reflective / reflexive approach to learning

Learners Reflecting on your own and the groups experience of learning, what you see as the main barriers to learning?

Perceptual Cultural Motivational Cognitive Intellectual Expressive
Learners Perceptual Cultural Motivational Cognitive Intellectual Expressive Situational Physical Specific environment Perceptual: Not seeing there is a problem Cultural: The way things are here Motivational: Fear and insecurity Cognitive: Previous learning experiences Intellectual: Limited / poor learning styles Expressive: Poor communication skills Situational: Lack of opportunities Physical: Place, time Specific environment: Boss / colleagues unsupportive

Spectrum….. choices…. Andragogy (Adult) Learning Pegagogy
Formal lecture-led Workshop-led Content-driven / closed curriculum Process-driven / Open curriculum Individual learning Group/social learning Passive learners / Tutor-led Active learners / Student-led

Most people learn …. What percentage [%] out of 100 of what they see
of what they talk over with others of what they teach someone else of what they use and do in real life of what they read of what they hear of what they see and hear Using the sheet provided please put in the percentages as you feel they apply to you? Attributed to William Glasser

Most people learn …. 10% of what they read 20% of what they hear
30% of what they see 50% of what they see and hear 70% of what they talk over with others 80% of what they use and do in real life 95% of what they teach someone else Attributed to William Glasser

Some Learning Theories Some Learning Theories Experiential Learning
Pedagogy Andragogy Reflective practice Some Learning Theories Some Learning Theories Learner Autonomy Experiential Learning Action Learning Social Learning Craik (2009)

Pedagogy “Pedagogy is also sometimes referred to as the correct use of teaching strategies (see instructional theory). In correlation with those teaching strategies the instructor’s own philosophical beliefs of teaching are harboured and governed by the pupil’s background knowledge and experiences, personal situations, and environment, as well as learning goals set by the student and teacher. One example would be the Socratic schools of thought.” The teacher-centered model became the norm. Conner quotes from the work of Eduard C. Lindeman in The Meaning of Adult Education as to how the pedagogical focus even worked its way into the field of adult education. “Our academic system has grown in reverse order. Subjects and teachers constitute the starting point, [learners] are secondary,” wrote Lindeman. “In conventional education the [learner] is required to adjust himself to an established curriculum….Too much of learning consists of vicarious substitution of someone else’s experience and knowledge. Psychology teaches us that we learn what we do….Experience is the adult learner’s living textbook.” Lindeman (1987)

Pedagogy of the Oppressed is the most widely known of educator Paulo Freire's works. It proposes a pedagogy with a new relationship between teacher, student, and society. It was first published in Portuguese in 1968, and was translated and published in English in 1970.[1] Dedicated to what is called "the oppressed" and based on his own experience helping Brazilian adults to read and write, Freire includes a detailed Marxist class analysis in his exploration of the relationship between what he calls "the colonizer" and "the colonized." The book remains popular among educators all over the world and is one of the foundations of critical pedagogy. In the book Freire calls traditional pedagogy the "banking model" because it treats the student as an empty vessel to be filled with knowledge, like a piggybank. However, he argues for pedagogy to treat the learner as a co-creator of knowledge. According to Donaldo Macedo, a former colleague of Freire and University of Massachusetts professor, Pedagogy of the Oppressed is a revolutionary text, and people in totalitarian states risk punishment reading it[2]; Arizona's secretary of education, Tom Horne, objects to its use in classrooms.[3] The book has sold over copies worldwide.[4] See -

Adult Learning / Andragogy
Knowles' (1984) theory of andragogy is an attempt to develop a theory specifically for adult learning. Knowles emphasizes that adults are self-directed and expect to take responsibility for decisions. Adult learning programmes must accommodate this fundamental aspect. Principles: Learners must know why something is important to learn; Learners must be shown how to direct themselves through information; Topics must be related to the learners’ experiences; People will not learn until they are ready and motivated to learn; and therefore teachers must help learners overcome inhibitions, behaviors, and beliefs about learning. Andragogy is the process of engaging adult learners in the structure of the learning experience. The term was originally used by Alexander Kapp (a German educator) in 1833 and was developed into a theory of adult education by the American educator, Malcolm Knowles (1984) Q: When do you become an adult learner? 13

http://www. belfastmet. ac
& Malcolm Knowles ( ) w as arguably 'the' central figure in adult education in America in the second half of the twentieth century. He was Director of the Adult Education Association of the USA and had worked within the YMCA. This led him to believe that a lot of adult learning in that organisation actually took place informally in clubs and social groups, not classrooms. In fact in adult learning the appropriate role of the tutor was to be leader and facilitator, not to be the teacher. This role was less central than that of the teacher in a school or as outlined in existing teaching and pedagogic theories. Theory: Knowles was convinced that adults learn in quite different ways from that of children, and that traditional pedagogy did not cover this. He popularised the term androgogy to refer to the science and art of adult education and learning. Knowles' work on androgogy is based on 5 assumptions about how and why adults learn, which he argues made them quite different from children: Self-concept. As a person matures they move from being a dependant personality towards one of being a self-directed human being who can articulate their learning needs and goals. Experience. As a person matures they accumulate a growing reservoir of experience that becomes an increasingly important resource for their learning. Readiness to learn. As a person matures their readiness to learn emerges and is increasingly linked to the developing demands of their work and social life. Orientation to learning. As a person matures they are increasingly involved in applying learning towards problem solving. Motivation to learn. As a person matures they tend to become much more self motivated to learn. What it means: Some of the learning strategies that emerge from these assumptions about Adult learning and training are: Trainees have an understanding and are able to state their own individual learning needs and goals. Trainees can have control over their own rate of progress through training and can provide valuable input into what is to be learned. Trainees can bring their own life and vocational experiences to the learning situation - Peer learning Giving trainees the freedom to have their own theories and opinions is very important. Learning should be applied to real life situations. Tutors play less of a teaching role and become much more involved in managing the interaction between individual trainees. Criticisms One of the main criticisms of Knowles' work is that not all adults exhibit the characteristics that are outlined in his assumptions and that some children possess some of them. In practice a good trainer will use a mixture of strategies based on the concepts of pedagogy and androgogy - depending on the nature of individual trainees and the particular learning situation.

3. Learner Autonomy The development of autonomy implies students taking greater responsibility for their own learning through active and independent/ interdependent involvement in the process as well as in the subject content of the curriculum (Little, 2000) In addition, the ability to influence one's own learning has been associated with improved academic performance (Findley and Cooper, 1983; Bandura, 1977 and 1986) "Learning of any kind is successful only to the extent that it enhances the learner’s capacity for independent behaviour. Whereas we may or may not be consciously aware of the autonomy we derive from developmental and experiential learning, in formal learning contexts the development of autonomy is always a matter of conscious intention." Little, D (2002) "As I envisage an action based approach to teaching and learning, treating the learners as persons in their own right is crucial. This means, quite simply, that they are listened to and respected as speakers in their own right. (Kramsch,1993)…. and as agents of their own educational destiny." Lier (2007) "Most educational theories stipulate the desirability of learners' acquiring sufficient skill in preparation, execution and evaluation to conduct their own learning." " Rodgers defines the educated 'man' as the 'man who has learned how to learn. learned how to adapt and change and that no knowledge is secure…seeking knowledge is the basis for security." Moore (1972) Much of the literature in the field of learner autonomy explores the term in the context of language teaching and learning languages. In terms on traditional business degree courses the term should be viewed as providing the building blocks to bring students to the level where they can manage their learning. This does not mean the tutor / teacher withdraws support but that a state of independent learning exists between the tutor and student.

Action Learning Learning as a Social Process
Action learning is a social framework for individuals to pool their perspectives to take action and solve a problem. Implicit in this, is that learners can take responsibility for their decisions and actions and can, as managers of the situation, actively interact with the world. From this, they can seek to empower themselves through on-going learning and the building of their personal capacity. This is at the personal or self-development level. At the group level, collaborative enquiry allows for “shared work, knowledge and ways of knowing where new social meanings and realities are collectively constructed” (Pedler 1997).

4. The Action Learning Cycle
(Garratt 1997 and Weinstein 1999) New Activity / event / experience Activity / event / experience New Actions Reflection& decision to experiment Action learning can be defined as a process in which a group of people come together more or less regularly to help each other to learn from their experience. Learning as a Social Process … Action learning is a social framework for individuals to pool their perspectives to take action and solve a problem. Implicit in this, is that learners can take responsibility for their decisions and actions and can, as managers of the situation, actively interact with the world. From this, they can seek to empower themselves through on-going learning and the building of their personal capacity. This is at the personal or self-development level. At the group level, collaborative enquiry allows for “shared work, knowledge and ways of knowing where new social meanings and realities are collectively constructed” (Pedler 1997). Action Learning is built on the premise of: L = P + Q Where: L = ‘Learning' through a combination of knowledge and insightful questioning P = ‘Programmed Knowledge' - ‘expert' and ‘personal/input' knowledge Q = ‘Questioning Insight' or in effect the process of action learning (Revans 1983). The action learning process has built upon the experiential learning model and in order for 'Q' – Questioning Insight, to be effective a cycle of learning is required (see Figure). Again, within the action learning cycle, the different learning styles come into play. The learning spiral also evolves to ensure that the learner will not return to the same place of knowledge, but to a different and new place. While‘ reflection' is placed in just one location of the learning cycle, reflection should occur at all stages of the cycle, whether that be undertaking an action or planning a new one (Weinstein 1999). Reflection & Analysis Hypothesis & experiment L=P+Q (Revans)

An equation for you L = P + Q + R
Learning equals programmed knowledge plus questions plus reflection. (see Reg Revans (1998) on Action Learning)

Social Learning Theory (Bandura)
People learn through observing others’ behaviour, attitudes, and outcomes of those behaviours. “Most human behaviour is learned observationally through modelling: from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviours are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action.” (Bandura 1977) Social learning theory explains human behaviour in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioural, and environmental influences. Content: Social learning theory states that effective learning requires social interaction. Wenger (1998) suggested that we all participate in 'communities of practice' (groups of people with shared expertise who work together) and that these are out primary sources of learning. Bandura (1977) views learning as a series of information processing steps set in train by social interactions. = Learning is most effective in a social setting. Individual understanding is shaped by active participation in real situations. Practical Implications: Learning can be encouraged in communities of practice, and in project teams and networks. (Armstrong th ed: page557) There are Necessary conditions for effective modelling: 1. Attention — various factors increase or decrease the amount of attention paid. Includes distinctiveness, affective valence, prevalence, complexity, functional value. One’s characteristics (e.g. sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement) affect attention. 2. Retention — remembering what you paid attention to. Includes symbolic coding, mental images, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal. 3. Reproduction — reproducing the image. Including physical capabilities, and self-observation of reproduction. 4. Motivation — having a good reason to imitate. Includes motives such as past (i.e. traditional behaviorism), promised (imagined incentives) and vicarious (seeing and recalling the reinforced model).

Experiential Learning
Stephen Brookfield (1983) suggests writers use the terms for: Learning where students are given the chance to acquire and apply knowledge, skills and feelings in an immediate and relevant setting. Thus it involves a “direct encounter with the phenomena being studies rather than merely thinking about the encounter, or only considering the possibility of doing something about it” (Borzak 1981) Learning is “education that occurs as a direct participation in the events of life” (Houle 1980) i.e. reflecting on everyday experiences. Content: People learn by constructing meaning and developing their skills through experience. Practical implications: Learning through experience can be enhanced by encouraging learners to reflect on and make better use of what they learn through their work and from other people. Self-directed learning and personal development planning activities with help from facilitators, coaches, or mentors are also underpinned by experiential learning theory, as in action learning. (Armstrong th ed: page557) Experiential Learning Theory defines learning as “as a process of conflict confrontation and resolution among four basic adaptive modes or ways of relating to the world.” (Kolb and Fry, 75:37) Learning is defined as a process of social adaptation resulting in behavioural change.

Flat Pack Activity How would you go about assembling a piece of flat pack furniture?

Towards an applied theory of experiential learning
Kolb's Learning Styles linked to the Learning Cycle CONCRETE EXPERIENCE Accomodator Concrete and active Diverger Concrete and reflective ACTIVE EXPERIMENTATION REFLECTIVE OBSERVATION Converger Active and abstract Assimilator Reflective and abstract Diverging (feeling and watching - CE/RO) - These people are able to look at things from different perspectives. They are sensitive. They prefer to watch rather than do, tending to gather information and use imagination to solve problems. They are best at viewing concrete situations several different viewpoints. Kolb called this style 'Diverging' because these people perform better in situations that require ideas-generation, for example, brainstorming. People with a Diverging learning style have broad cultural interests and like to gather information. They are interested in people, tend to be imaginative and emotional, and tend to be strong in the arts. People with the Diverging style prefer to work in groups, to listen with an open mind and to receive personal feedback. Assimilating (watching and thinking - AC/RO) - The Assimilating learning preference is for a concise, logical approach. Ideas and concepts are more important than people. These people require good clear explanation rather than practical opportunity. They excel at understanding wide-ranging information and organising it a clear logical format. People with an Assimilating learning style are less focused on people and more interested in ideas and abstract concepts. People with this style are more attracted to logically sound theories than approaches based on practical value. These learning style people is important for effectiveness in information and science careers. In formal learning situations, people with this style prefer readings, lectures, exploring analytical models, and having time to think things through. Converging (doing and thinking - AC/AE) - People with a Converging learning style can solve problems and will use their learning to find solutions to practical issues. They prefer technical tasks, and are less concerned with people and interpersonal aspects. People with a Converging learning style are best at finding practical uses for ideas and theories. They can solve problems and make decisions by finding solutions to questions and problems. People with a Converging learning style are more attracted to technical tasks and problems than social or interpersonal issues. A Converging learning style enables specialist and technology abilities. People with a Converging style like to experiment with new ideas, to simulate, and to work with practical applications. Accommodating (doing and feeling - CE/AE) - The Accommodating learning style is 'hands-on', and relies on intuition rather than logic. These people use other people's analysis, and prefer to take a practical, experiential approach. They are attracted to new challenges and experiences, and to carrying out plans. They commonly act on 'gut' instinct rather than logical analysis. People with an Accommodating learning style will tend to rely on others for information than carry out their own analysis. This learning style is prevalent and useful in roles requiring action and initiative. People with an Accommodating learning style prefer to work in teams to complete tasks. They set targets and actively work in the field trying different ways to ABSTRACT CONCEPTUALISATION Kolb and Fry Towards an applied theory of experiential learning

Critique of 'learning styles’
Has no one definition – in much of the literature it is used loosely and often interchangeably with terms such as ‘thinking styles’, ‘cognitive styles’ and ‘learning modalities’. Research in the field of learning styles is conflicting and often methodologically flawed. The literature draws on the fields of pedagogy, psychology and neuroscience, but generally fails to engage fully with any of them. A lack of academic clarity and the competing commercial interests in the field have led to a confused and confusing array of concepts, models and tools. Some are more influential than others, but no model of learning styles is universally accepted Becta (2005) A significant number of theorists and researchers (Kolb, Honey and Mumford, for instance) have argued that learning styles are not determined by inherited characteristics, but develop through experience. Styles are therefore not necessarily fixed, but can change over time, even from one situation to the next. Theorists such as Entwistle, on the other hand, are more interested in how students tackle a specific learning task (learning strategy) than any habitual preference (learning style). What these authors have in common is an emphasis not simply on the learner but on the interaction between the learner, the context and the nature of the task. Indeed, Bloomer and Hodkinson (2000) argue that learning styles are only a minor factor in determining how learners react to learning opportunities: the effects of contextual, cultural and relational issues are much greater. If, therefore, learning styles are not fixed personality traits, the emphasis shifts from accommodating learning styles to encouraging a balanced approach to learning and – perhaps more importantly – an explicit awareness of the range of approaches available to the learner. Even among authors who question the validity of learning styles as a concept, most agree that there is a benefit in enabling learners to reflect on how they learn. Encouraging metacognition (being aware of one’s own thought and learning processes) is therefore perhaps the most important advantage that can be claimed for applying learning styles theory to learning and teaching. According to Sadler-Smith (2001), it may be that a knowledge of learning styles makes students better able to adapt to different situations. Ramsden (1983) makes a similar claim regarding learning strategies: students who are aware of a range of strategies are more likely to select the correct one for a particular task.

Key breakthroughs in helping people understand the dynamics of learning are the concepts of single loop, double-loop and triple-loop learning. These concepts help you to realize and appreciate the kinds of learning. The concepts are largely from the works of Argyris and Schon (1974 & 1978) The conventional example used to explain this concept is the thermostat. It operates in one mode. When it detects that the room is too cold, it turns on the furnace. When it detects that the room is too hot, it turns off the furnace. In other words, the system includes one automatic and limited type of reaction – little or no learning occurs and little or no insight is needed. Experts assert that most organizations operate according to single-loop learning – members establish rigid strategies, policies and procedures and then spend their time detecting and correcting deviations from the “rules.” In double-loop learning, members of the organization are able to reflect on whether the “rules” themselves should be changed, not only on whether deviations have occurred and how to correct them. This kind of learning involves more “thinking outside the box,” creativity and critical thinking. This learning often helps participants understand why a particular solution works better than others to solve a problem or achieve a goal. Experts assert that double-loop learning is criticalto the success of an organization, especially during times of rapid change. Triple-loop learning involves “learning how to learn” by reflecting on how we learn in the first place. In this situation, participants would reflect on how they think about the “rules,” not only on whether the rules should be changed. This form of learning helps us to understand a great deal more about ourselves and others regarding beliefs and perceptions. Triple-loop learning might be explained as double-loop learning about double-loop learning.

What words do you associate with Mercedes cars?

Learning Process (Research)
The Process of Deduction THEORIES GENERALISATION HYPOTHESES OBSERVATION The Process of Induction Adapted from Wallace (1971) The Logic of Science in Sociology See also, Gill and Johnson (2002)

Readings and References:
Armstrong, M. (2006) A Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice. 6th 3d. Kogan Page (tehre are also other versions of this book and it is an e-book). Bandura, A (1977). Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioural change. Psychological Review, 41, Bandura, A (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action: a social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice Hall. Blackman, Connelly & Henderson (2004) Does double-loop learning create reliable knowledge? The Learning Organisation Volume 11 - No Bloomer, M and Hodkinson, P (2000), ‘Learning careers: continuity and change in young people’s dispositions to learning’, British Educational Research Journal, 26, 583–597 Cassidy, S (2004), ‘Learning styles: an overview of theories, models and measures’, Educational Psychology, 24(4), 419–444 Coffield, F et al (2004), Learning styles and pedagogy in post-16 learning, Learning and Skills Research Centre [ david a. kolb on experiential learning

Knowles, M. S. et al (1984) Andragogy in Action
Knowles, M. S. et al (1984) Andragogy in Action. Applying modern principles of adult education, San Francisco: Jossey Bass. kurt lewin: groups, experiential learning and action research Learning Styles and Learning Spaces: Enhancing Experiential Learning in Higher Education. By: Kolb, Alice Y.; Kolb, David A. Academy of Management Learning & Education, Jun2005, Vol. 4 Issue 2, p , 20p, HTML Full Text PDF Full Text Stewart, J and Rigg, C. (2011) Learning and Talent Development. London: CIPD. Chapter 6 on Learning Linderman, E. (1987) Learning Democracy Eduard Lindeman on adult education and social change Marcia L Conners Learn More Now (John Wiley & Sons, 2004), Moore M G (1972) Learner autonomy: The second dimension of independent learning. Convergence Fall: Questions and Answers on Learning Styles Questionnaire. By: Mumford, Alan; Honey, Peter. Industrial & Commercial Training, 1992, Vol. 24 Issue 7, p10, 4p PDF Full Text Rodgers C (1969) Freedom to Learn (Columbus Ohio Merrill.) The individual as learner Author(s):Alex Bennet. VINE; Volume: 36 Issue: 2; 2006 Viewpoint View HTML | View PDF

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