1. Campaigns and Elections in Texas
CHAPTER 8
Campaigns and Elections in Texas

2. Texas Learning Outcomes
Analyze the state and local election process in Texas

3. Chapter Learning Objectives
Discuss ballot forms in Texas
Discuss ballot access in Texas
Describe primary elections
Explain special elections
Describe the federal Voting Rights Act
Discuss absentee and early voting
Discuss ways in which the nature of elections has changed
Describe political campaigns in Texas, including the use of consultants and the role of money

4. Ballot Form
Each county in Texas decides the ballot form and method of casting ballots
Texas counties formerly used paper ballots with a party column format, with candidates listed by party and office, which encouraged straight-ticket voting
Since 2008, counties in Texas have used one of three electronic voting systems
Most computer ballots are in office block format, listing the office followed by the candidates by party
Straight-ticket voting is still possible: by marking a single place, the voter can vote for all candidates for that party

5. FIGURE 8.1 A Sample Texas General Election Ballot in Office Block Format
SOURCE: Adapted from Sidney Verba and Norman Nie, Participation in America: Political Democracy and Social Equality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 79. © Courtesy of Texas Secretary of State

6. Ballot Access to the November General Election
Candidates must meet criteria established by state law
Each state has its own unique set of requirements, which prevent the lists of candidates from being unreasonably long
The Texas Election Code specifies three routes: as an independent, as a write-in candidate, or as a major party candidate

7. Independent and Third-Party Candidates
An independent candidate appears on the ballot without a political party designation
In Texas, a candidate must file a petition with a specified number of signatures—for statewide office, 1% of the votes cast for governor in the past general election
Each petition signer must be a registered voter and must not have participated in the primary of other parties
“Sore loser” law: in Texas, a person who lost a primary cannot run as an independent or minor party candidate
Write-in candidates must file their intention before the election

8. CORE OBJECTIVE
Thinking Critically …
Explain the challenges that hinder minor party candidates from succeeding in statewide elections.

9. Party Caucus
A minor party in Texas is any political organization that receives 5–19% of the total votes cast for any statewide office in the past general election
A major party, 20% or more of the total votes
Minor parties must nominate their candidates in a party caucus (a meeting of party members) or convention
Major parties (today, the Democratic and Republican parties) must nominate their candidates in a primary election

10. Party Caucus: Primaries
Texas has an open primary system, which allows the voter to vote in any primary
Semi-open primary system: voters can vote in either primary, but are then considered “declared” for that party, limiting the voter in a number of ways
Although Texas does have an open primary system, it is commonly labeled as having a semi-open system because of certain restrictions
When attending a primary, voters must choose a ticket and pick only from the candidates in that party; but after the primary, voters can cross party lines

11. Party Caucus: Primaries 2
In a closed primary system, currently used in 15 states, voters declare their party affiliation when they register, and they vote only in the primary of their party registration
Semi-closed primary system: voters can change their party registration on Election Day
One other form is the blanket primary system, formerly used in Alaska, California, and Washington
Voters could switch parties between offices
Blanket primaries were ruled unconstitutional in 2000

12. TABLE 8.1 Primary Systems Used in State Elections
Closed Primary: Party Registration Required before Election Day
Semi-closed Primary: Voters May Register or Change Registration on Election Day
Semi-open Primary: Voters Required to Request Party Ballot
Open Primary: Voters May Vote in Any Party Primary
Nonpartisan: Voters May Switch Parties between Races
Alaska
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Idaho
Kentucky
Maine
Nebraska
Nevada
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
Oklahoma
Pennsylvania
South Dakota
Arizona
Colorado
Iowa
Kansas
Maryland
Massachusetts
New Hampshire
North Carolina
Oregon
Rhode Island
Utah
West Virginia
Wyoming
Alabama
Arkansas
Georgia
Illinois
Indiana
Mississippi
Ohio
South Carolina
Tennessee
Texas
Virginia
California
Hawaii
Michigan
Minnesota
Missouri
Montana
North Dakota
Vermont
Wisconsin
Louisiana
Washington
Source: John R. Biddy and Thomas M. Holbrook, “Parties and Elections,” in Politics in American States: A Comparative Analysis, 8th ed., edited by Virginia Gray and Russell L. Hanson (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 2004). © Pat Sullivan/AP Images

13. Political Differences between Open and Closed Primary Systems
Open primaries allow crossover voting: voters of one party may vote in the other party’s primary
Voters may do so in hopes of nominating a candidate whose philosophy is similar to their own
A kind of crossover voting occurs in party raiding—an orchestrated effort to nominate a weaker candidate or split the vote among strong candidates
In 11 states, a runoff primary is required if no candidate receives a majority in the first primary
In Texas, voters who voted in the primary of one party may not participate in the runoff primary of the other party

14. The Administration and Finance of Primary Elections
The Texas Election Code governs primary elections
Persons wanting to file for an office in the primary election must pay a filing fee
Anyone who cannot pay the filing fee can still be placed on the primary ballot by filing a petition
Some candidates file a petition as a campaign tactic—sometimes also paying the fee to play it safe
Although technically primary elections are administered at the local level, the Texas Election Code and secretary of state ensure rules are followed

15. Special Elections
In Texas, elections may be held in January, May, August, and November; and those in January, May, and August are considered special elections
The most common is selection of city council members and mayoral elections if not held in November; and all school board elections are held in May
Amendments to the state constitution are considered in special elections commonly arranged for January or August when no other elections are usually held
A third type of special election occurs when only one contest is on the ballot, such as when filling a vacancy due to death or resignation

16. The Federal Voting Rights Act
The U.S. Voting Rights Act, aimed at preventing racial discrimination, was passed in 1965
When extended to Texas in 1975, it required preclearance by the U.S. Justice Department of all changes in election procedures
The U.S. Supreme Court struck down Section 4 of the Voting Rights Act in Shelby County v. Holder in 2013
Texas immediately implemented voter identification laws, though a court order modified their implementation for the 2016 election
The other sections of the Voting Rights Act are still in effect

17. The Hispanic Population and Bilingual Ballots
FOCUS ON
The Hispanic Population and Bilingual Ballots
An amendment to the Voting Rights Act in 1975 prohibited discrimination against members of “language minorities”
As a result, localities must provide all election-related information and services “in the language of the applicable minority group as well as in the English language”
A precinct must comply if more than 5%, or more than 10,000, of its voting-age citizens speak a single minority language
The legal requirement for bilingual ballots has generated great controversy

18. Communicating Effectively …
CORE OBJECTIVE
Communicating Effectively …
Do you think the Voting Rights Act requirement that Texas provide a bilingual ballot increases voter turnout?
Construct an argument in favor or against this provision of the Voting Rights Act.

19. Absentee and Early Voting
All states allow some form of absentee voting—allowing a person to vote early, before the regular election
In most states, persons who will be out of the county on Election Day may file for absentee voting
In Texas today, anyone can vote absentee, called “early voting,” without restrictions
Early voting begins 17 days before an election and closes four days before; and polls are typically open from 7 a.m. to 7 p.m.

20. The Changing Nature of Elections
In the past, social issues were rarely a facet of state and national politics; but this has changed
Issues such as abortion, gay rights, women’s rights, gun control, the environment, and health care dominate
The importance of social issues contribute to the partisan nature of politics today
Most of the time, neither side will compromise

21. The Changing Nature of Elections 2
Three other changes are significant:
Labor unions have declined as a voice in elections
Catholic and male votes have migrated to the Republican Party because of such issues as abortion and gay rights
The 24-hour news cycle and the Internet have changed the way campaigns are run and often have undue influence on the outcomes of elections

22. Campaigns
Considerable changes to campaign activity in Texas are part of a national trend
Campaigns used to be “local affairs,” where candidates would travel from county seat to county seat giving speeches that often differed depending on the audience
In modern-day Texas, the media play a significant role in political campaigns

23. The Role of the Media in Campaigns and Elections
Political rallies are still held, but they are media events in which candidates strive to convey a favorable image to the public
Heavy media coverage can have disadvantages
Example: Clayton Williams, “It’s like rape. When it’s inevitable, relax and enjoy it.”
Campaign events gain attention and free media coverage; but free media attention is never enough
Candidates must purchase time on television and radio and space in newspapers

24. Being Socially Responsible …
CORE OBJECTIVE
Being Socially Responsible …
What responsibility do you think the media have in covering campaigns and elections?
Are the media living up to your expectations?

25. Political Consultants
The use of professional campaign consultants is common in almost all races
These consultants use a variety of techniques
Public opinion polls measure voter reaction to issues
Focus groups of “average citizens” are asked to react to issues or words
Consultants also help design written and visual advertisements and “package” the candidate to voters

26. Money in Campaigns
Media advertising, professional consultants, and a full-time paid campaign staff increase the cost of running for state office
Statewide races can be quite costly
The amount is increasing with each election cycle
Most of this money comes from political action committees (PACs), which clearly want something for their contributions
The business sector makes up a significant majority of total PAC campaign contributions

27. TABLE 8.2 Total PAC Money in State Campaigns from 2006 to 2014
Sector
2006 Cycle
2008 Cycle
2010 Cycle
2012 Cycle
2014 Cycle
Growth
Business
$57,034,732
$62,741,376
$68,235,849
$70,399,948
$81,135,492
15%
Ideology
$37,003,210
$50,403,265
$57,847,226
$47,292,862
$65,225,862
38%
Labor
$5,116,613
$6,307,456
$7,032,134
$8,173,262
$12,085,061
48%
Unknown
$13,099
$109,764
$330,977
$501,388
$868,218
73%
Totals
$99,167,654
$119,561,860
$133,446,187
$126,267,460
$159,314,633
26%
Source: Texas PACs: 2014 Election Cycle Spending. February See (

28. TABLE 8.3 Total Contributions Raised by Major Party Candidates by Office in 2010
Loser Total
Primary Loser Total
Winner Total
Candidates
Governor
$26,298,865
$16,565,395 8
Attorney General
$910,779 NA
$5,828,869 2
Comptroller
$2,716,730 1
Land Commissioner
$98,758
$2,270
$863,307 3
Lieutenant Governor
$949,944
$56,772
$10,635,480 4
Texas House
$15,367,175
$5,328,930
$56,155,371
271
Texas Senate
$110,780
$897,362
$10,951,410 44
Source: Texans for Public Justice, Money in PoliTex: A Guide to Money in the 2010 Texas Elections (

29. Money in Campaigns 2
Money from PACs buys access to the official; and it has the potential to buy the official’s vote
Candidates sometimes loan themselves money, but the law limits the amount a candidate can collect to retire personal campaign debts
Many state laws to regulate campaign finances have been invalidated by the U.S. Supreme Court
Today regulation in Texas is limited to requiring candidates and PACs to file reports with the State Ethics Commission
Texas has no limit on how much candidates can spend on statewide races

30. MAP 8.1 Limitations on PAC Contributions in Statewide Races, 2015–2016
Some states differentiate between types of statewide office, typically separating gubernatorial, legislative and “other” candidates. House and senate candidates may also be differentiated. For the purposes of this map, gubernatorial candidate limits were chosen if there was any differentiation whatsoever.
Texas is among fourteen states that have no limit on contributions.
SOURCE: National Conference of State Legislatures. “State Limits on Contributions to Candidates 2015–2016 Election Cycle.” May See (

31. Taking Personal Responsibility …
CORE OBJECTIVE
Taking Personal Responsibility …
If you choose to contribute to a candidate’s campaign, to what extent is the candidate obligated to you as a contributor? Should your contribution influence public policy?
What about corporate contributions?

32. Money: Impact of the Citizens United Decision
The U.S. Supreme Court in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010) ruled that the federal government cannot limit direct spending on campaign advertising by corporations or labor unions
It left the question unresolved as to the status of states with laws prohibiting such spending; but several have repealed such laws
A 2011 amendment to Texas’s election code remove a ban on political expenditures and solely regulated direct campaign contributions

33. Conclusion
The rules governing elections have an impact on who is elected and on the policies enacted by government
The electoral process in Texas is dominated by the Anglo population
Most citizens choose not to participate politically
As in other states, campaigns in Texas have become media affairs dominated by political consultants, advertising, and money

34. Summary Discuss ballot forms in Texas Discuss ballot access in Texas
Ballot forms are used by voters to cast their ballots. Each county determines the form of the ballot. Since the 2008 election, all Texas counties have used electronic voting systems, most of which use the office block format that lists each office with the candidates by party.
Discuss ballot access in Texas
To run as an independent, a candidate must file a petition with a specified number of signatures. A write-in candidate must pay a filing fee. Major party candidates must win their party’s primary election. Primaries can be open or closed or a mixture. Texas has a semi-open primary.

35. Summary 2 Describe primary elections Explain special elections
Primaries are used by major parties to nominate candidates for the general election. With open primaries, voters can vote in either primary; with closed primaries, voters can only vote in their own party’s primary.
Explain special elections
In Texas, elections may be held in January, May, August, and November. Those taking place in January, May, or August are special elections. These may be used to elect city council members and mayors; to decide on amendments to the state constitution; or when only one contest is on the ballot.

36. Summary 3 Describe the Federal Voting Rights Act
This federal law, aimed at preventing racial discrimination in voter registration and elections, required federal preclearance of all changes in election procedures. The primary method of enforcement was rendered useless when the U.S. Supreme Court struck down a section of the law in June 2013.
Discuss absentee and early voting
Absentee voting allows a person to vote before the regular election. It applies to all elections in Texas and is also called early voting. From 17 to 4 days before the election, voters can mail in a ballot or go to an early voting polling place.

37. Summary 4 Discuss ways in which the nature of elections has changed
Certain key issues now dominate elections, including abortion, gay rights, gun control, the environment, and health care. The influence of labor unions has declined. Catholic and male votes have migrated over to the Republican Party. The 24-hour news cycle, online campaigns, and social networking have had significant effects on election outcomes.

38. Summary 5
Describe political campaigns in Texas, including the use of consultants and the role of money
Campaigns require constant publicity, media expertise, and a lot of money. Professional campaign consultants help design written and visual advertisements and generally “package” the candidate to the voters. Most money comes from political action committees (PACs), with few legal limitations.