1. Political Parties in Texas
CHAPTER 9
Political Parties in Texas

2. Texas Learning Outcomes
Evaluate the role of political parties in Texas

3. Chapter Learning Objectives
Describe the evolution of the political party system in the United States and in Texas
Explain the history of party realignment, one-party Republican dominance, and party dealignment in Texas
Describe third-party movements in the United States and in Texas
Explain political party organization in Texas, including caucus and primary delegate selection systems

4. How Parties Have Operated in the United States
In the past, parties played a central role in our political system, performing many different activities and functions
The two primary modes of party activity:
Labor-intensive politics
Capital-intensive politics
The latter has become more prominent over time

5. Labor-Intensive Politics
From the 1790s to the 1970s, parties relied on members and volunteers
Parties selected candidates; controlled their campaigns; raised money and distributed it to different candidates’ campaigns; organized campaign rallies and produced literature; and hired pollsters to conduct research
The parties printed the election ballots
Finally, especially after the spoils system was introduced around 1830, the parties ran the governments to which their candidates were elected
In Texas, the Democratic Party had a powerful political machine that controlled the governorship

6. Thomas Nast, “The Third-Term Panic”
This 1874 Thomas Nast cartoon is considered the origin of party symbols still in use today: Here, an elephant represents the Republican Party and a donkey (wearing a lion’s skin) represents the Democratic Party. The caption reads, “An ass, having put on the lion's skin, turned about in the forest, and amused himself by frightening all the foolish animals he met in his wanderings.”
Source: Library of Congress

7. The Waning of Labor-Intensive Politics: Parties and Campaigns Today
The role of parties has changed significantly, and their influence has declined
Candidates self-select to run
Candidates generally assemble their own campaign teams
Parties still provide funding, but candidates also receive money directly from PACs and donors and/or fund themselves
Local governments now prepare official ballots
The merit system has, for the most part, replaced the spoils system

8. Capital-Intensive Politics
In a shift toward more capital-intensive politics, campaigns must use money (or capital) to purchase non-human resources to reach voters
The importance of broadcast media began with radio
Today “microtargeting” allows campaigns to serve up personalized messages to prospective voters
Campaigns use the Internet to communicate, though a “digital divide” puts many out of reach of these efforts
Polling data has become essential
Professional campaign consultants have replaced the parties when it comes to running campaigns

9. Political Reforms and the Weakening of Political Parties
Parties are weaker today than at any other time
Many reforms were passed during the Progressive Era (1890–1920) when reformers were concerned about the influence of large urban political machines
One way parties had maintained power was through voting systems that lacked privacy and anonymity
Voters could be intimidated and threatened
The “Australian” ballot, which gained widespread use in the U.S. the 1880s, subdued this type of abuse: ballots were produced by the government; all ballots were identical; and each ballot listed all candidates

10. Political Reforms and the Weakening of Political Parties 2
Parties had also dominated the nominating process, with party bosses selecting candidates
Beginning in 1904, reformers introduced the direct primary, where all members of the party vote to determine the party’s nominee
The spoils or patronage system had allowed parties to consolidate their power by appointing faithful members to government jobs
After President James Garfield’s assassination in 1881, a merit system was established with the Pendleton Act (1883)—and in the new “civil service,” positions were to be held regardless of the party in power

11. The Spoils System Under Siege
This Currier & Ives image, a cartoon titled “A Nice Family Party,” argues for civil service reform by depicting Ulysses S. Grant with party supporters clamoring for government patronage.
Source: Library of Congress

12. Political Reforms and the Weakening of Political Parties 3
Reformers brought about several other changes
They pushed for nonpartisan local elections to remove “political” considerations from municipal policy
They championed the manager-council form of municipal government, with a professional city manager administering the departments and employees of the city
More recently, campaign finance laws have also lessened the influence of parties
Money, however, still has a tremendous role in elections

13. Communicating Effectively …
CORE OBJECTIVE
Communicating Effectively …
Explain how political reforms have weakened political parties.

14. Fifty States, Fifty Party Systems
The U.S. does not have strong national parties
One factor is that few officeholders are elected on a nationwide basis—only the president and vice president
Another is that national party organizations typically have high visibility only during their national nominating conventions, every four years
Each of the 50 state party organizations acts independently
Texas elects two U.S. senators and 36 U.S. representatives; and elects 31 state senators and 150 state representatives
Little interaction occurs between national and state officials

15. The Strength of State Party Organizations
States can be classified according to the strength of party organization within the state
The Democratic Party once dominated in Texas; today, the Republican Party holds sway
Party labels do not necessarily indicate ideology—the basic belief system guiding theory and policy
Ideologies are generally classified on a spectrum of conservative, moderate, and liberal
For years, the Democratic Party in Texas was conservative
Texans’ ideological consistency has been reflected in their strong support for Republican presidential candidates

16. TABLE 9.1 Presidential Candidates Winning the Popular Vote in Texas (1952–2016)
Year
Candidate
Party
1952
Dwight Eisenhower
Republican
1956
1960
John Kennedy
Democratic
1964
Lyndon Johnson
1968
Hubert Humphrey
1972
Richard Nixon
1976
Jimmy Carter
1980
Ronald Reagan
1984
1988
George H. W. Bush
1992
1996
Bob Dole
2000
George W. Bush
2004
2008
John McCain
2012
Mitt Romney
2016
Donald J. Trump
Source: Texas Secretary of State, Presidential Election Results,

17. Taking Personal Responsibility …
CORE OBJECTIVE
Taking Personal Responsibility …
Examine your political values and compare them to expressed values of both parties.
Do your ideas about the role of government, politics, and policy align with one particular party?

18. Evolution of Political Parties in Texas
Many political scientists believe weakened parties lead to candidate-centered politics
Cohen and Kantor: prospective officeholders “emphasize their own talents, backgrounds, and characteristics rather than their association with either major party when running for office”
The political history of Texas can be viewed as a chronological parade of personalities

19. Politics of the Republic of Texas
When it was founded, the politics and government of the Republic were dominated by two men
Sam Houston advocated for annexation and peaceful relations with the Native American tribes
Mirabeau Buonaparte Lamar envisioned a Texas empire and initiated hostilities against the tribes
Constitutionally, presidents could not serve consecutive terms, so elections revolved around these two personalities
Politics were dominated by the leaders instead of the issues and policy differences

20. Sam Houston, Governor of Texas, 1859–1861; U. S
Sam Houston, Governor of Texas, 1859–1861; U.S. (Democratic) Senator from Texas, 1846–1859; President of Texas, 1836–1838, 1841–1844; Texas House of Representatives, 1839–1841; Governor of Tennessee, 1827–1829; U.S. Representative from Tennessee, 1823–1827.
© Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division [LC-USZ ]

21. Annexation and the Civil War Era
In this period, Texas’s plantation economy expanded, and the Democratic Party held sway
Most officeholders took the southern position on all issues
The exception was Sam Houston, who voted for Oregon as a free territory; argued for selling large territories of Texas to the U.S.; and opposed both slavery and secession
With secession, Houston refused to swear allegiance to the Confederacy, and he was replaced
Briefly, during Reconstruction, Republicans dominated
The administration of Republican governor Edmund J. Davis was a source of acrimony for former Confederates

22. The One-Party Democratic Era in Texas
Reconstruction ended in Texas in 1874, and for about 100 years, Texas was a one-party Democratic state
Davis lost his bid for reelection in 1873
From 1874 to 1961, no Republican was elected to statewide office
Certain factors were influential, including the rise of several third-party movements
The Greenbacks
The People’s Party, or “Populists”
The Texas Farmers’ Alliance, known as the Grange

23. The One-Party Democratic Era in Texas: The Populists
The People’s Party had a large impact on the national Democratic Party and the U.S. system as a whole
Formed in the early 1890s, initially as a farm movement, the Populists were anti-elite and stood for bimetallism, graduated income tax, direct election of senators, an eight-hour work day, and government ownership of the railroad
In Texas, currency issues predominated
The party had its greatest success in the presidential election of 1892; and although the movement waned, the Democratic Party adopted many of its planks
In 1896, the Populists supported the Democratic Party nominee, William Jennings Bryan

24. Swallowed! Political cartoon showing a python with the head of William Jennings Bryan, as the Populist Party, swallowing the Democratic Party donkey, 1900.
© Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division [LC-USZC4-1473].

25. The One-Party Democratic Era in Texas: The Progressives
As the Populists declined, the Progressives emerged as the key reform movement
Progressives favored elite (and national) management of government and the economy, and their causes included both political and economic reforms—such as women’s suffrage, prohibition, and business regulation
The Progressives’ activist view came to dominate American politics; but in Texas, it met with limited favor due to the state’s basic conservatism
One exception was the stance on prohibition

26. The One-Party Democratic Era in Texas: The Democrats’ Continued Control
The Democratic Party in Texas successfully destroyed the smaller party movements and continued to control state politics until the 1960s
The party’s conservative element dominated the party for decades and kept it in power
Texas politics revolved almost exclusively around personality and economic issues
Infighting increasingly divided the party
The conservative element eventually found more in common with religious groups and those newly settled in Texas for economic reasons

27. Party Realignment in Texas
The party system is susceptible to changes in voting behavior and can be transformed by them
Realignment is “a lasting shift of party loyalty and attachment in voting citizens” (Sundquist)
It is a long-lasting change, on a large scale, in the party landscape
Over the past 50 years, the political landscape in Texas has evolved from one of Democratic Party dominance to one of Republican Party dominance

28. The Beginning of Change
In the 1952 and 1956 elections, many Yellow Dog Democrats (who identify as Democrats regardless of ideology) voted for the Republican candidate
Conservative Democratic Governor Allen Shivers and most statewide Democratic candidates in 1952 were nominated by both parties; they became known as “Shivercrats,” while the liberal faction of the Democrats were “Loyalists”
These actions initiated the Texas tradition of supporting Republican presidential candidates while retaining Democratic dominance over state offices; and they broke the tradition of straight-ticket voting

29. The Election of John Tower
Texas’s movement toward the Republican Party was temporarily stayed in 1960
Lyndon Johnson, U.S. senator and Texas Democrat, became John F. Kennedy’s vice president
In a special election in 1961, Republican John Tower was elected to fill Johnson’s seat
Tower became Texas’s first Republican U.S. Senator and first Republican statewide officeholder since Reconstruction
He won reelection in 1966, 1972, and 1978, but it was 17 years after his first victory before a different Republican won statewide office

30. The Election of Bill Clements
The election of Republican Bill Clements as governor in 1978 marked the real beginning of two-party politics in Texas
Clements used his power to recruit and appoint people who would publicly declare themselves Republican
In 1982, Clements lost reelection to Democrat Mark White, and many Democrats were elected to statewide office, including Ann Richards, Jim Hightower, Gary Mauro, and Jim Mattox
Clements returned to the governor’s office in 1986

31. The “Conversion” and Election of Phil Gramm
In 1984 former Democratic representative Phil Gramm won election to the U.S. Senate as a Republican
As a Democratic member of the U.S. House from 1978 to 1983, Gramm had served on the House Budget Committee and had leaked Democratic strategy to the White House
In 1983 he resigned his House seat; then won reelection to the same seat, but as a Republican
He then won election to the U.S. Senate in 1984, filling the seat previously held by John Tower and allowing the Republican Party to retain one of Texas’s two seats in the Senate
Gramm was easily reelected in 1990 and 1996

32. The Move toward Parity with the Democrats
The Republican Party in Texas made significant gains in 1988 but had a big setback in 1990
In 1988 Clements returned to the governor’s mansion and George H. W. Bush was elected president
In 1990 Clements did not seek reelection, and Republican Clayton Williams lost in the governor’s race to Democrat Ann Richards
In 1992, U.S. Senator Lloyd Bentsen, a Democrat, resigned; and Texas Republicans captured their second seat in the Senate with Kay Bailey Hutchison

33. The One-Party Republican Era in Texas
In 1994, Texas finally transitioned from its brief two-party system to a one-party Republican system
George W. Bush was elected governor; and Republicans gained control of 23 of a total 27 statewide offices
After the 1998 elections, the Republicans held all statewide offices
After the 2000 elections, Republicans were also in the majority in both the Texas House and Senate

34. TABLE 9.2 Total Offices Held by Republicans, 1974–2016
Year
U.S. Senate (2)
U.S. House (36)
Statewide Office (27)
Texas Senate (31)
Texas House (150)
County Office
Board of Education (15)
1974 1 2 3 16 53 —
1976 19 67
1978 4 22 87
1980 5 7 35
166
1982 36
270
1984 10 6 52
377
1986 56
504
1988 8 57
608
1990
717
1992 9 13 58
814
1994 11 14 61
900
1996 17 68
950
1998 18 71
973
2000
1,231
2002 15 27 88
1,327
2004
1,390
2006 81
1,410
2008 76
1,345
2010 26
101
1,356
2012 23
100
n/a
2014 25 20 97
2016 95
The number in parentheses at the top of each column represents the current total number of offices in that category. State Board of Education was not elected until 1988.

35. The Current Party System in Texas
The state party system has remained fairly stable for several decades
Rick Perry became governor in 2000 and was subsequently reelected for three full terms—the longest-serving governor in Texas history
Perry was succeeded by current Governor Greg Abbott

36. An Update on the Republicans
Multiple wings with different agendas characterize the current Republican Party in Texas
Pro-business conservatives push for low taxes and limited regulation of the economy; and share the basic economic liberalism of pro-market libertarian Republicans
Social conservatives oppose abortion and gay civil rights, and support prayer and creationism in schools
Some challenge to the party establishment and social conservatives has come from pro-market libertarian Republicans more committed to personal liberty
Finally, some of these agendas combine in the “Tea Party”

37. An Update on the Democrats
No Democrat has been elected to statewide office in Texas since 1994
“Turn Texas Blue” (or “Battleground Texas”) aims to return the state to Democratic dominance—one effort being Wendy Davis’s failed 2014 campaign for governor
The party is aided by two talented young Hispanic politicians: former San Antonio mayor Julián Castro and his twin, U.S. Congressman Joaquín Castro
If Texas turns “blue,” the national political ramifications could be huge

38. On the left, Governor Greg Abbot; and on the right, Wendy Davis flanked by Julián Castro and Joaquín Castro.
© Tony Gutierrez/AP Images; © LeAnn Mueller

39. The Political Affiliation of Hispanics
FOCUS ON
The Political Affiliation of Hispanics
Hispanic Texans are more likely to be affiliated with the Democratic Party than with the Republican Party
This has not translated into across-the-board support
In 2014, Hispanic voters supported Democratic gubernatorial candidate Wendy Davis; but their votes in the U.S. Senate race were basically evenly split
Nationwide, Hispanic voters’ most important issues are the economy, health care, and illegal immigration
Both parties in Texas have made efforts to appeal to Hispanic voters

40. Being Socially Responsible …
CORE OBJECTIVE
Being Socially Responsible …
What impact, if any, do factions have on enhancing or diminishing civic engagement?
In your opinion, do factions promote acceptance of diverse opinions?

41. Party Dealignment
Many political scientists believe an era of national party dealignment began in the late 1960s or early 1970s and reached Texas a decade or so later
In “dealignment,” voters distance themselves from both of the major political parties
Possible signs and symptoms include low voter turnout, increased split-ticket voting, candidate-centered campaigns, and a decline in the number of people who identify themselves as a member of either major party
Other evidence suggests that most Americans do maintain a connection with one of the two parties

42. Third-Party Movements
Third-party movements develop in Texas from time to time, some national, others state-based
In the 1970s, the Raza Unida Party ran candidates for state and local offices
The Libertarian Party has put forth candidates for statewide offices in Texas for many years; and currently, Libertarians hold five elected offices in Texas
Texas industrialist Ross Perot ran as an independent candidate for president in 1992
The Green Party of Texas has been active in recent years

43. TABLE 9.3 Texas General Election Results for President, 1992–2016
Year
Candidate
% of Vote
1992
Republican: George Bush/Dan Quayle
40.56%
Democrat: Bill Clinton/Al Gore
37.07%
Independent: Ross Perot/James Stockdale
22.01%
Libertarian: Andre Marrou/Nancy Lord
0.32%
1996
Republican: Bob Dole/Jack Kemp
48.75%
43.83%
Independent: Ross Perot/James Campbell
6.74%
Libertarian: Harry Browne/Jo Jorgensen
0.36%
2000
Republican: George W. Bush/Dick Cheney
59.29%
Democrat: Al Gore/Joe Lieberman
37.98%
Green: Ralph Nader/Winona LaDuke
2.15%
Libertarian: Harry Browne/Art Olivier
2004
61.08%
Democrat: John F. Kerry/John Edwards
38.22%
Libertarian: Michael Badnarik/Richard V. Campagna
0.52%
2008
Republican: John McCain/Sarah Palin
55.45%
Democrat: Barack Obama/Joe Biden
43.68%
Libertarian: Bob Barr/Wayne A. Root
0.69%
2012
Republican: Mitt Romney/Paul Ryan
57.16%
41.38%
Libertarian: Gary Johnson/Jim Gray
1.10%
Green: Jill Stein/Cheri Honkala
0.30%
2016
Republican: Donald Trump/Mike Pence
52.23%
Democrat: Hillary Clinton/Tim Kaine
43.24%
Libertarian: Gary Johnson/William Weld
3.16%
Green: Jill Stein/Ajamu Baraka
0.80%
Source: Office of the Secretary of State, 1992-Current Election History, See: (

44. TABLE 9.4 Texas Election Results for Governor, 1994–2014
Year
Candidate
% of Vote
1994
Republican: George W. Bush
53.47%
Democrat: Ann W. Richards
45.87%
Libertarian: Keary Ehlers
0.64%
1998
68.23%
Democrat: Garry Mauro
31.18%
Libertarian: Lester R. “Les” Turlington, Jr.
0.55%
2002
Republican: Rick Perry
57.80%
Democrat: Tony Sanchez
39.96%
Libertarian: Jeff Daiell
1.46%
Green: Rahul Mahajan
0.70%
2006
39.02%
Democrat: Chris Bell
29.78%
Independent: Carole Keeton Strayhorn
18.11%
Independent: Richard “Kinky” Friedman
12.44%
Libertarian: James Werner
0.60%
2010
54.97%
Democrat: Bill White
42.29%
Libertarian: Kathie Glass
2.19%
Green: Deb Shafto
0.39%
2014
Republican: Greg Abbott
59.27%
Democrat: Wendy R. Davis
38.90%
Libertarian: Kathy Glass
1.41%
Green: Brandon Parmer
Source: Office of the Secretary of State, 1992–Current Election History. See: (

45. Third-Party Movements 2
Third parties have not had much impact in Texas
The rules governing elections make it difficult to gain access to the ballot
Campaigns are expensive, especially in terms of the necessary media access
Often minor parties hope to have their ideas picked up by a major party—such as with Ross Perot, whose 1992 campaign focused on the need to balance the federal budget
Groups like the “Tea Party” emerge as factions within major parties and attempt to influence their party

46. Third-Party Movements 3
What explains the failure of third parties?
A political and cultural consensus
Voter identification with the two parties they grew up with
Lack of proportional representation
Election by plurality rather than majority
Efforts by the two major parties to legally limit access to the ballot
The perception of third-party failure
Duverger’s Law: the electoral system strongly conditions the type of party system that will result

47. CORE OBJECTIVE
Thinking Critically …
For a variety of reasons, third parties do not currently have much impact on Texas politics.
What measures might be taken to level the playing field for third parties and improve their competitiveness in elections?

48. Party Organization in Texas
Political parties in all states have both permanent and temporary organizations
These are shaped by federal and state law and by rules established by the national party organizations
Texas Election Code determines many aspects of party activity, especially primary elections
Each county in Texas is divided into election precincts
Statewide there are just under 8,000 election precincts
When voters register, they are assigned to a precinct-based polling place near their home

49. Permanent Party Organization
The permanent party organization in the state consists of a hierarchy of elected party officials
At the lowest level is the precinct chair
The county chair organizes the party at the county level
The next level is the county executive committee or, in large metropolitan counties, a district executive committee
The state executive committee consists of two elected members from each of Texas’s 31 state senatorial districts and provides leadership for the party
The state party chair and state vice-chair are also elected, at the state convention, although the gubernatorial candidate has influence in their selection

50. Temporary Party Organization
The temporary party organization consists of a series of conventions held in even-numbered years
At the precinct convention, usually held on the same day as the party primary in March, delegates to the county convention (or senatorial district convention) are selected
At the county convention (or senatorial district convention), held on the third Saturday after the primary, delegates to the state convention are selected
The state convention, normally in June of even-numbered years, selects delegates to the national convention and selects Electoral College representatives; and also elects individuals to serve on the national committee

51. Caucus and Primary Delegate Selection Systems
Both major parties hold national conventions every four years to nominate a candidate for president
The party’s nominee is ultimately determined by the number of delegates supporting each candidate
Each state is allocated a certain number of delegates based on party rules
To determine the delegates, states hold a caucus, a presidential primary election, or a combination of the two

52. Primary versus Caucus
In a primary, voters go to their polling place and cast a ballot for the candidate they prefer; and delegates are awarded based on the proportion of the popular vote each candidate receives
In a caucus, a town hall-style meeting of party members, delegates are distributed based on the number of supporters for each candidate in attendance
The caucus system harkens back to the era of labor-intensive politics, requiring an organization of active volunteers to produce results

53. Primary versus Caucus: Texas
Texas uses a primary system to determine most delegates to the national party conventions
Primaries are held every four years in March
Not all delegates are allocated based on the statewide outcome
For the Democrats, many delegates are allocated based on the primary outcomes in the senatorial districts; and some delegates (“superdelegates”) are “unpledged”
For the Republicans, many delegates are allocated based on the primary outcomes in the U.S. congressional districts

54. 2008 Democratic Party Caucuses
Until 2016, the Democratic Party in Texas used both a primary and a precinct convention (a caucus), in what was called the “Texas Two-Step”
The process was especially chaotic in 2008
With Clinton and Obama in a tight race for delegates, precinct conventions were attended by tens of thousands, and most were unaware of why they were there and what the meeting would accomplish
In the end, Clinton won the popular vote in the Texas primary, but Obama secured the majority of the state’s precinct convention delegates in the caucus, allowing him to edge out Clinton in the total delegate count

55. Conclusion
U.S. political parties are not nearly as strong today as they were in the past, but they still play a vital role
The political history of Texas has been marked by a period of Democratic Party dominance, a major realignment, and a more recent period of Republican Party dominance
Today, both parties have permanent headquarters and professional staffs actively engaged in organizing the party and supporting candidates during the general election

56. Summary
Describe the evolution of the political party system in the United States and in Texas
The U.S. has both national and state party systems. The parties themselves are weaker today than previously, mainly due to reforms of the Progressive Era. As a result, politics revolve primarily around candidates and their personalities.
Explain the history of party realignment, one-party Republican dominance, and party dealignment in Texas
After Reconstruction, Texas was a one-party Democratic state. A realignment saw Texas become a one-party Republican state. There is some evidence a dealignment has since occurred.

57. Summary 2
Describe third-party movements in the United States and in Texas
Third-party movements develop from time to time but are typically not very successful. Often the most they can hope to achieve is to have their issues adopted by a major party.
Explain political party organization in Texas, including caucus and primary delegate selection systems
Party organization in the state includes both permanent and temporary organizations. Major parties use a primary (or election), rather than a caucus (meeting of party members) to nominate candidates for the general election.