1. credit: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villareal
Chapter 7
General Biology I
BSC 2010
Cellular Respiration
credit: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villareal

2. Cellular Respiration is (sort of) the Reverse of Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis stores light energy in the form of chemical bonds.
It produces food.
Cellular respiration extracts energy from chemical bonds.
It breaks down food.

3. - Electrons and Energy Redox is two simultaneous events.
One compound is reduced (an electron is added).
Another compound is oxidized (an electron is removed).
It represents a very small transfer of energy.
The extra electron adds energy to the reduced compound.
The oxidized compound loses energy.
Sometimes the electron is transferred as part of complete hydrogen atom.

4. Electron Carriers -
Certain molecules in cells carry electrons from one molecule to another.
They can be easily reduced or oxidized.
An important electron carrier in cells is nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD).
NAD+ is the oxidized form, NADH is the reduced form.

5. More on Electron Carriers
FAD (FAD+, FADH2) is also an electron carrier.
Like NAD, it is important in respiration.
NADP is like NAD with an extra phosphate group.
It is important in photosynthesis.

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NAD+ and NADH
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7. ATP is the Cell’s Energy Currency
Adenosine triphosphate is an unstable molecule (a nucleotide) that is good for short-term energy storage.
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ATP has 3 phosphate groups that can be removed by hydrolysis to form ADP or AMP. Negative charges on the phosphate groups naturally repel each other, requiring energy to bond them together and releasing energy when these bonds are broken.

8. Phosphorylation
When a phosphate group is added to a molecule, we say it has been “phosphorylated”.
Molecules can also be “dephosphorylated”(a phosphate group is removed).
Dephosphorylation of ATP yields ADP.
Phosphorylation of ADP yields ATP.

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A Phosphate from ATP Can Be Used to Phosphorylate Other Molecules, Changing Their Function
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10. Enzymes Transfer Phosphate Groups During Varied Types of Phosphorylation to Make ATP
Substrate-level phosphorylation
A phosphate group is removed from an intermediate reactant in a pathway, and free energy of the reaction is used to add the third phosphate to an ADP, producing ATP.
Oxidative phosphorylation
A phosphate group is added to ADP during a chemiosmosis process, producing ATP.
Most ATP from cellular respiration is produced this way.
Photophosphorylation
Light energy is used to add the phosphate, as seen in photosynthesis.

11. Steps for Production of ATP by Cellular Respiration
Glycolysis, the breakdown of glucose.
We begin by studying glucose, but other molecules can yield energy for use in the cellular respiration pathway.
Pyruvate Oxidation
The Citric Acid Cycle
Oxidative Phosphorylation

12. Glycolysis Occurs in the Cytoplasm
Energy (activation energy) is required to get the first part of glycolysis started by splitting glucose into two smaller molecules.
2 ATPs are used
In the second part of glycolysis, ATP is produced.
4 ATPs are produced.
2 NADHs (reduced electron carriers) are produced.
2 pyruvate molecules remain.

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Glycolysis, Part 1
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The first half of glycolysis uses two ATP molecules in the phosphorylation of glucose, which is then split into two three-carbon molecules (G3Ps).

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Glycolysis, Part 2
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The second half of glycolysis involves phosphorylation without ATP investment (step 6) and produces 2 NADH and 4 ATP molecules per glucose.

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Pyruvate Oxidation
At the end of glycolysis, 2 pyruvate molecules remain. In order to continue to the Citric Acid Cycle, the pyruvates must be converted to acetyl CoA.
During this process, the pathway enters the mitochondrial matrix. In the process, carbon dioxide is released and one molecule of NADH is formed.
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16. The Citric Acid Cycle (TCA Cycle, Krebs Cycle)
The acetyl group from acetyl CoA is attached to oxaloacetate to form 6-carbon citrate. Subsequent steps release 2 CO2 molecules, 3 NADH and one FADH2, and one GTP/ATP (made by substrate-level phosphorylation). At the end of the cycle, oxaloacetate remains to accept another acetyl CoA.
credit: modification of work by “Yikrazuul”/Wikimedia Commons

17. Oxidative Phosphorylation
This process makes most of the ATP.
There are 2 main parts of the process:
The electron transport chain
embedded in the inner membrane of the mitochondria
This is where the oxygen is required.
Chemiosmosis
across the inner membrane of the mitochondrion
The actual phosphorylation event (to make ATP) occurs in the matrix of the mitochondrion.

18. The Electron Transport Chain
The chain is a series of electron transporters that shuttles electrons from NADH and FADH2 to molecular oxygen. In the process, protons are pumped from the matrix to the intermembrane space, and oxygen is reduced to form water.

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Chemiosmosis
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The energy from electron flow is used to pump protons (H+) into the intermembrane space. The crowded protons diffuse across the inner membrane, through ATP synthase, into the matrix. ATP is made (by oxidative phosphorylation).

20. credit: modification of work by Klaus Hoffmeier
ATP Synthase
ATP synthase is a complex molecular machine that uses a proton (H+) gradient to form ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi).
credit: modification of work by Klaus Hoffmeier

21. Metabolism Without Oxygen
Some organisms
lack the enzymes to use oxygen
lack the enzymes to detoxify the by-products of oxygen- based metabolism
are poisoned by oxygen
Anaerobic cellular respiration is used by some, such as the methanogens and sulfate-reducing bacteria.
Others use fermentation.

22. Fermentation
Some organisms make ATP only during glycolysis. It is critical to not run out of NAD+ for glycolysis to continue.
Fermentation is dedicated to turning NADH from glycolysis back into NAD+. (recall that glycolysis requires NAD+)
During fermentation, waste products are produced, but really, the organism just wants its NAD+ back so it can continue doing glycolysis.
Two types of fermentation are lactic acid fermentation and alcohol fermentation.

23. Lactic Acid Fermentation
Lactic acid fermentation is used by some micro-organisms. It also occurs (short-term) in our muscle cells that have run out of oxygen.
The waste product is lactic acid, which is used for production of yogurt.
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Alcohol Fermentation
The waste products are CO2 and ethanol.
Humans use these in production of foods and industrial products.
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25. Other Molecules in Metabolic Pathways
We can get food energy not just from glucose, but also from lipids, proteins, and other types of carbohydrates.
These molecules participate in pathways that connect eventually with glycolysis and/or the citric acid cycle.
In addition, intermediates from cellular respiration can be shunted to other pathways for anabolism.
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