1. NIGERIAN RICE/MAIZE PRODUCERS ORGANIZATION
STRENGTHENING/IMPROVING THE CAPACITY OF
NIGERIAN RICE/MAIZE PRODUCERS ORGANIZATION
Recommended best practices to reduce post-harvest losses, and improved storage conditions

2. Can someone explain what is happening here?
Introduction
Can someone explain what is happening here?

3. What are post-harvest losses?
The expression "post-harvest losses" means a measurable quantitative and qualitative loss in grains from the point of harvest to the point of consumption
These losses can occur during any of the various phases of the post-harvest system.
This loss encompasses both loss in quantity and quality
THUS,
Postharvest loss can be defined as the degradation in both quantity and quality of a food production from harvest to consumption. Quality losses include those that affect the nutrient/caloric composition, the acceptability, and the edibility of a given product

4. Introduction cont’d
From an economic point of view, the sum of the losses in quantity and quality of the products inevitably means losses of money
In addition to direct economic losses, there are those resulting from poor management of post-harvest systems. They are evidenced by a lack of growth in production and in the income of the farmers
Post-harvest loss is measured only for products that are directed for human consumption, and it excludes feed and parts of products that are not edible
From the harvest onward, then, the grain undergoes a series of operations during the course of which quantitative and qualitative losses can occur

5. Introduction cont’d
A late harvest, for example, can bring about losses from attacks by birds and other pests.
Insufficient drying of grain can cause losses from the development of moulds and insects.
Threshing can cause losses from broken grains and encourage the development of insects.
Poor storage conditions can bring about losses caused by the combined action of moulds, insects, rodents and other pests.
Transport conditions or defective packaging of grain can lead to quantitative losses of product.

6. Quick Facts about post-harvest Losses
Self-reported on-farm postharvest loss (PHL) is estimated to be between 1.4 and 5.9% of national maize harvest
food loss reduces income by at least 15% for 470 million smallholder farmers and downstream value chain actors
The problem of food loss in Sub-Saharan Africa is acute: more than 30% of the food produced for human consumption across the continent is lost
In developing countries, 90% of wastage occurs from food loss within the value chain. It directly impacts poor producers through foregone income and impacts poor consumers by reduced food availability, increased prices, and decreased nutritional content.
Lack of awareness among many actors in the food chain and the perception among both buyers and farmers of loss as a “cost of doing business” contributes to these gaps. Often the full extent of loss that is occurring is not realized

7. Can post-harvest loss be curtailed?
Postharvest loss as a solvable problem
While no silver bullet exists, small changes in behavior among a few key actors can improve the system—but all of these small changes need to occur together

8. Types of post harvest losses
Quality loss: lead to reduction in price
Market force loss: demand and supply changes
Post-Harvest Losses
Biophysical Loss
Economic Loss
Nutrient Loss
Total Loss: Consumed by insects, rodents, etc
Biochemical changes that takes away nutrients

9. Stages of post-harvest losses

10. Transport and distribution
Stages of losses
Harvesting
Threshing
Drying
Transport and distribution
Storing
Processing
Cleaning
Packaging
Marketing
Use
Biophysical and nutrition losses occur down the pyramid
Quality and quantity losses occur down the pyramid

11. STAGE LOSSES Min. Max. Harvest 1% 3 % Handling 2% 7% Threshing 2 % 6 %
the following table gives estimates of the quantitative losses of rice for each stage in the post-harvest system in Southeast Asia
STAGE
LOSSES
Min.
Max.
Harvest 1%
3 %
Handling 2% 7%
Threshing
2 %
6 %
Drying
5 %
Storage
Transport
10 %
Total
10%
37%

12. Post-harvest loss characteristics in the maize-based system

13. Specific stage-based Strategies for reducing post-harvest losses
Harvesting
In tropical countries in general, most grains have a single annual harvesting season, although in bimodal rainfall areas there may be two harvests.
African producers harvest grain crops once the grain reaches physiological maturity (moisture content is 20-30%)
At this stage the grain is very susceptible to pest attacks. Poor farmers sometimes harvest crops too early due to food deficiency or the desperate need for cash. In this way, the food incurs a loss in nutritional and economic value, and may get wasted if it is not suitable for consumption.
Quality cannot be improved after harvest, only maintained; therefore, it is important to harvest at the proper maturity stage and at peak quality.

14. Threshing/shelling
For some grains, particularly millet and sorghum, threshing may be delayed for several months after harvest and the unthreshed crop stored in open cribs.
In the case of maize, the grain may be stored on the cob with or without sheathing leaves for some months, or the cobs may be shelled and grain stored.
Some machinery suitable for small small-scale operation exists such as: maize shellers; Rice mechanical threshers which are actively being promoted by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI).

15. Threshers
Maize thresher
Rice thresher

16. Winnow/cleaning
Usually done prior to storage or marketing if the grain is to be sold directly. For the majority of the smallholder , this process is done manually.
It is relatively ineffective from a commercial perspective, since grain purchased from smallholders frequently requires screening to remove stones, sand, and extraneous organic matter. There is little incentive for smallholders to provide well- cleaned grain for marketing;

17. Drying
Most farmers in Africa, both small and large, rely almost exclusively on natural drying of crops by combining sunshine and movement of atmospheric air through the product; consequently, damp weather at harvest time can be a serious cause of postharvest losses.
Grains should be dried in such a manner that damage to the grain is minimized and moisture levels are lower than those required to support mold growth during storage (usually below 13-15%).
This is necessary to prevent further growth of fungal species that may be present on fresh grains. The harvested crop may be dried in the yard or in a crib as indicated in figures A and B.
Sun drying is weather dependent, requires high labor, is slow, and causes large losses. Grains lying in the open for sun drying are eaten by birds and insects, and also get contaminated due to mixing of stones, dust, and other foreign materials

18. Drying Cont’d
Some farmers use mats or plastic sheets for spreading the grains, which reduces the contamination with dust and makes the collection of grains easy.
Mechanical drying addresses some of the limitations of natural drying, and offers advantages, such as reduction in handling losses, better control over the hot air temperature, and space utilization.
However, they suffer with the limitations of high initial and maintenance cost, adequate size availability, and lack of knowledge to operate these dryers, especially with smallholders.
Due to these limitations, these dryers are rarely used by smallholders in the developing countries

19. Safe Maturity Moisture level
Crop
Maturity Moisture Content
Paddy
22–28
Beans
30–40
Maize
23–28
Groundnut
30–35
Sorghum
20–25
Sunflower
9–10

20. Sun drying

21. Storage
Post-harvest losses at storage are associated with both poor storage conditions and lack of storage capacity. It is important that stores be constructed in such a way as to provide:
dry, well-vented conditions allowing further drying in case of limited opportunities for complete drying prior to storage;
protection from rain and drainage of ground water; and
protection from entry of rodents and birds and minimum temperature fluctuations.

22. Transportation
Transportation is an important operation of the grain value chain, as commodities need to be moved from one step to another, such as field to processing facilities, field to storage facilities, and processing facilities to market.
 The lack of adequate transportation infrastructure results in damage of food products through bruising and losses due to spillage.
Transportation loses are relatively very low in the developed countries due to better road infrastructure and engineered facilities on the field and processing facilities to load and unload the vehicles rapidly with very little or no damage.
Multiple movements of crop is another major reason for high transportation losses.
In some countries, sometimes bagged wheat is loaded and unloaded from vehicles up to ten times before it is milled. During each movement some grains are lost as spillage.

23. Transportation cont’d
 Unlike efficient bulk handling systems in developed countries, loading and unloading of grains from wagons, trucks, and rails at processing facilities is performed mostly manually in the developing nations, and results in high spillage
Large quantities (usually 100 kg of grains) in each bag, and hooks used to lift these bags cause tear in these bags and results in high spillage

24. Transportation media

25. Milling
The milling or processing operations vary for different grains.
In the case of rice, the purposes of milling are to remove the husk and bran layers of paddy to provide cleaned and whole white rice kernels for human consumption.
The operation can be performed manually or using milling machines. Traditionally, in rural areas, milling is performed manually by repeated pounding
Milling yields are highly dependent on the milling method, skills of the operator, and crop conditions before the milling process.
Milling of paddy containing foreign materials results in a high amount of cracked and broken kernels and can also damage machines.

26. Milling cont’d
 Inadequately maintained milling machines result in a high amount of broken kernels and low milling yields
Milling losses are highest among the losses during postharvest operations of rice.
The yields from village level small mills were as low as 57% due to small scale, poor calibration, and lack of maintenance.
High moisture and an inadequately cleaned paddy aggravate the situation and reduce yields.

27. Milling
The milling or processing operations vary for different grains.
In the case of rice, the purposes of milling are to remove the husk and bran layers of paddy to provide cleaned and whole white rice kernels for human consumption.
The operation can be performed manually or using milling machines. Traditionally, in rural areas, milling is performed manually by repeated pounding
Milling yields are highly dependent on the milling method, skills of the operator, and crop conditions before the milling process.
Milling of paddy containing foreign materials results in a high amount of cracked and broken kernels and can also damage machines.

28. Major barriers to reducing food loss
Limited knowledge of the issue and of prevention and reduction techniques
Broken distribution channels for loss-reducing technology
Limited technical know-how of smallholder farmers
Limited access to credit and financing
Difficulties in efficiently and cost-effectively linking adequate smallholder supply to buyer demand

29. Strategies to Reduce Storage Losses for Smallholders
STRENGTHENING/IMPROVING THE CAPACITY OF NIGERIAN RICE/MAIZE PRODUCERS ORGANIZATION  
Strategies to Reduce Storage Losses for Smallholders
Chemical Fumigation
Synthetic insecticides play an important role in controlling the pests and reducing losses during storage of grains.
If the maize grains are sufficiently dry(moisture content less than 13%), use of phostoxin can control the LGB infestation in maize grains.
Shelling the grains and storing them in polypropylene bags after proper application of Actellic Super can effectively avoid the pest infestation for a few months of storage.
Disadvantages of using chemical fumigation include high costs, development of genetic resistance in the treated pests, health hazards due to toxic residues, and environmental contamination

30. Phostoxin

31. Hermetic Storage
Hermetic storage (HS), also known called as “sealed storage” or “airtight storage”, is gaining popularity as a storage method for cereal, pulses, coffee, and cocoa beans in developing countries, due to its effectiveness and avoidance of the use of chemicals and pesticides.
The method creates an automatic modified atmosphere using sealed waterproof bags or structures. As the structures are airtight, the biotic portion of the grains (insects and aerobic microorganisms) creates a self-inhibitory atmosphere over time by increasing carbon dioxide concentration (oxygen decreases) due to its respiration metabolism.
Aflatoxin production ability of Aspergillus flavus is also reduced at high concentrations of CO2
Ease of installation, elimination of pesticide use, favorable costs, and modest infrastructure requirements are some of the additional advantages that make the hermetic storage options attractive.
If properly sealed, the hermetic storage units were themselves very efficient in killing the pests insects without any use of phosphine fumigation

32. The purdue bag

33. Metal Silos
A metal silo is a strong hermetically sealed structure is very effective for storage of grain for a long period of time and avoiding insects and rodents.
This method requires less ground space, which is important if space is not available or if its cost is high like at ports.
It is easy to keep the optimum storage conditions for the grain, by controlling the temperature, insects, mould, birds, which in long term storage facilities could result in an important economic loss.
It consists of lower costs than that incurred from using warehouses, which entails the automation of the grain transport equipment. The loading as well as the unloading can be completely automated using a SCADA system and at a lower cost.

34. Metal Silos CONT’D
Metal silos have been found to be effective in several other studies. However, their initial high cost is a major obstacle for their adoption by smallholders.
Community level silos might be an economic alternative, as the cost per unit of grains decreases with increases in the size of silos.
The maintenance cost is very low in the case of silos, which can compensate for the high initial cost to some extent.

35. METAL SILOS

36. Various actors in the value chain can each play a part in reduction of post-harvest losses
Large anchor buyers signal demand by making commitments and arranging contracts with their suppliers (local processors) to purchase specified quantities of smallholder farmers’ products
Implementing partner NGOs, aggregate and train smallholder farmers on how to reduce on-farm crop losses and meet market standards for quality and quantity
Smallholder farmers produce the required quality and quantity of agricultural ingredients, while adopting postharvest loss reducing practices and technologies
Agro-dealers develop new channels for distributing postharvest technologies to smallholder farmers. Individual farmers may not need to purchase or own these technologies; it may be more efficient for farmer organizations or other actors in the value chain to collateralize buyers’ crop orders, acquire loans, purchase technologies, and lend or lease the technologies to farmers.

37. Various actors in the value chain can each play a part in reduction of post-harvest losses
Financial institutions provide loans to finance farmers’ acquisition of postharvest technologies, using anchor buyers’ sourcing commitments as collateral.
Existing aggregation and procurement centers are used, or new centers are established, to create one-stop shops where traders and consolidators can purchase crops and pass them on to processors or buyers.