1. Geologic Time
Who is Stan Hatfield and Ken Pinzke

2. 17.1 Determining Relative Age
Rocks Record Earth History
17.1 Determining Relative Age
 Rocks record geological events and changing life forms of the past.
 We have learned that Earth is much older than anyone had previously imagined and that its surface and interior have been changed by the same geological processes that continue today.

3. Discovering Earth’s History
A Brief History of Geology
Discovering Earth’s History
 Uniformitarianism means that the forces and processes that we observe today have been at work for a very long time.

4. Principle of Uniformitarianism
This theory was proposed by a Scottish physician and farmer named James Hutton
Before Hutton’s work most people thought that the earth was only about 6 thousand years old
Geologists now estimate the earth to be about 4.6 billion years old

5. Discovering Earth’s History
Relative Dating—Key Principles
Discovering Earth’s History
 Relative dating tells us the sequence in which events occurred, not how long ago they occurred.
 Law of Superposition
• The law of superposition states that in an undeformed sequence of sedimentary rocks, each bed is older than the one above it and younger than the one below it.

6. Ordering the Grand Canyon’s History
Makes no sense without caption in book

7. Discovering Earth’s History
Relative Dating—Key Principles
Discovering Earth’s History
 Principle of Original Horizontality
• The principle of original horizontality means that layers of sediment are generally deposited in a horizontal position.

8. Disturbed Rock Layers
Makes no sense without caption in book

9. Disturbed Rock Layers
With disturbed rock layers, due to crustal movements, this law cannot be easily applied
Clues:
1. particle size in sedimentary rock
largest particles are in the bottom layer
study or particle size may reveal whether the
layer has been overturned (upside down etc)
2. Ripple marks should lie with their peaks turned up

10. Disturbed Rock Layers

11. Discovering Earth’s History
More Clues that you have disturbed layers
Discovering Earth’s History
3. Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships
• The principle of cross-cutting relationships states that when a fault cuts through rock layers, or when magma intrudes other rocks and crystallizes, we can assume that the fault or intrusion is younger than the rocks affected.
4. Inclusions
• Inclusions are rocks contained within other rocks.
• Rocks containing inclusions are younger than the inclusions they contain.

12. Cross-Cutting Relationships
A rock unit must always be older than any feature that cuts or disrupts it (e.g., faults, metamorphism, igneous intrusions).

13. Applying Cross-Cutting Relationships
Makes no sense without caption in book

14. Applying Cross-Cutting Relationships

15. Formation of Inclusions
Makes no sense without caption in book

16. Discovering Earth’s History
Relative Dating—Key Principles
Discovering Earth’s History
 Unconformities
• An unconformity represents a long period during which deposition stopped, erosion removed previously formed rocks, and then deposition resumed.
Types of Unconformities
1. An angular unconformity indicates that during the pause in deposition, a period of deformation (folding or tilting) and erosion occurred.

17. Formation of an Angular Conformity
Makes no sense without caption in book

18. Discovering Earth’s History
Relative Dating—Key Principles
Discovering Earth’s History
 Unconformities
2. A nonconformity is when the erosional surface separates older metamorphic or intrusive igneous rocks from younger sedimentary rocks.
3. A disconformity is when two sedimentary rock layers are separated by an erosional surface.

19. A Record of Uplift, Erosion, and Deposition
Makes no sense without caption in book

20. Discovering Earth’s History
Correlation of Rock Layers
Discovering Earth’s History
 Correlation is establishing the equivalence of rocks of similar age in different areas.

21. Correlation of Strata at Three Locations
Makes no sense without caption in book

22. 17.3 Fossils: Evidence of Past Life
Fossil Formation
17.3 Fossils: Evidence of Past Life
 Fossils are the remains or traces of prehistoric life. They are important components of sediment and sedimentary rocks.
 The type of fossil that is formed is determined by the conditions under which an organism died and how it was buried.
 Unaltered Remains
• Some remains of organisms—such as teeth, bones, and shells—may not have been altered, or may have changed hardly at all over time.

23. 17.3 Fossils: Evidence of Past Life
Fossil Formation
17.3 Fossils: Evidence of Past Life
 Altered Remains
• The remains of an organism are likely to be changed over time.
• Fossils often become petrified or turned to stone.
• Molds and casts are another common type of fossil. (empty cavities behind)
• Carbonization (imprints)is particularly effective in preserving leaves and delicate animals. It occurs when an organism is buried under fine sediment.

24. 17.3 Fossils: Evidence of Past Life
Fossil Formation
17.3 Fossils: Evidence of Past Life
 Indirect Evidence
• Trace fossils are indirect evidence of prehistoric life.
 Conditions Favoring Preservation
• Two conditions are important for preservation: rapid burial and the possession of hard parts.

25. Three kinds of fossil remains
1. Preservation of Organisms 2. Petrification 3. Traces of Organisms

26. Preservation of Organisms
Mummification – preserved by drying- there is no decay because bacteria cannot survive without water (desert climates)
Amber - hardened tree sap preserves many insects- even DNA has been recovered from amber
Tar Seeps – thick petroleum oozing to the surface preserves the remains of animals that get trapped
(La Brea Tar Pits in Southern California
Freezing – bacteria cannot survive freezing temps
(need bacteria for decomposition)

27. Process of Petrification
Mineral solutions such as groundwater remove the original organic materials and replace them with petrifying materials such as silica, calcite, and pyrite.
This process takes a long time and results in the nearly perfect mineral replica of the original organism (plant or animal)

28. Petrified Forest National Park Arizona

29. Traces of Organisms
Trace fossils – footprints hardened into sedimentary rock
Imprints, Molds and Casts
Imprints – carbonized imprints of leaves, stems, flowers ,fish
Molds – shells of snails leave empty cavities
Casts – sand or mud filled mold
Coprolites - fossilized dung or waste materials or castings of worms, snails or crabs
Gastroliths –stones in dinosaurs digestive systems (just like chickens)

30. Types of Fossilization
Makes no sense without caption in book

31. How Fossils are formed

32. 17.3 Fossils: Evidence of Past Life
Fossils and Correlation
17.3 Fossils: Evidence of Past Life
 The principle of fossil succession states that fossil organisms succeed one another in a definite and determinable order. Therefore, any time period can be recognized by its fossil content.
 Index fossils are widespread geographically, are limited to a short span of geologic time, and occur in large numbers.

33. 17.3 Fossils: Evidence of Past Life
Fossil Formation
17.3 Fossils: Evidence of Past Life
 Interpreting Environments
• Fossils can also be used to interpret and describe ancient environments.

34. Overlapping Ranges of Fossils
Makes no sense without caption in book

35. 17.2 Determining Absolute Age
Rates of Erosion and Deposition
- only practical with geologic features formed within the past 10,000 to 20,000 years (only a rough estimate)
- determine the rate at which erosion is taking place you can give an approximate date to features
- estimate the average rates of deposition for limestone, shale and sandstone (what about flood rates?)
Varve Count
- some sedimentary layers show definite annual layers
( like tree rings) A Varve consists of a light colored band of course particles and a dark colored band of fine particles ( glacial lakes)

36. Relative and Absolute Time

37. Dating with Radioactivity
Basic Atomic Structures
Dating with Radioactivity
 Orbiting the nucleus are electrons, which are negative electrical charges.
 Atomic number is the number of protons in the atom’s nucleus.
 Mass number is the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in an atom’s nucleus.

38. Dating with Radioactivity
 Radioactivity is the spontaneous decay of certain unstable atomic nuclei.

39. Common Types of Radioactive Decay
Makes no sense without caption in book

40. Dating with Radioactivity
Half-Life
Dating with Radioactivity
 A half-life is the amount of time necessary for one-half of the nuclei in a sample to decay to a stable isotope.

41. The Half-Life Decay Curve
Makes no sense without caption in book

42. Dating with Radioactivity
Radiometric Dating
Dating with Radioactivity
 Each radioactive isotope has been decaying at a constant rate since the formation of the rocks in which it occurs.
 Radiometric dating is the procedure of calculating the absolute ages of rocks and minerals that contain radioactive isotopes.

43. Dating with Radioactivity
Radiometric Dating
Dating with Radioactivity
 As a radioactive isotope decays, atoms of the daughter product are formed and accumulate.
 An accurate radiometric date can be obtained only if the mineral remained in a closed system during the entire period since its formation.

44. Radioactive Isotopes Frequently Used in Radiometric Dating
Makes no sense without caption in book

45. Dating with Radioactivity
Dating with Carbon-14
Dating with Radioactivity
 Radiocarbon dating is the method for determining age by comparing the amount of carbon-14 to the amount of carbon-12 in a sample.
 When an organism dies, the amount of carbon-14 it contains gradually decreases as it decays. By comparing the ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 in a sample, radiocarbon dates can be determined.

46. Dating with Radioactivity
Importance of Radiometric Dating
Dating with Radioactivity
 Radiometric dating has supported the ideas of James Hutton, Charles Darwin, and others who inferred that geologic time must be immense.

47. Dating with Radioactivity

48. 18.1 The Geologic Time Scale
Structure of the Time Scale
18.1 The Geologic Time Scale
 Based on their interpretations of the rock record, geologists have divided Earth’s 4.56-billion-year history into units that represent specific amounts of time. Taken together, these time spans make up the geologic time scale.

49. 18.1 The Geologic Time Scale
Structure of the Time Scale
18.1 The Geologic Time Scale
 Eons represent the greatest expanses of time. Eons are divided into eras. Each era is subdivided into periods. Finally, periods are divided into smaller units called epochs.
 There are three eras within the Phanerozoic eon: the Paleozoic, which means “ancient life,” the Mesozoic, which means “middle life,” and the Cenozoic, which means “recent life.”

50. 18.1 The Geologic Time Scale
Structure of the Time Scale
18.1 The Geologic Time Scale
 Each period within an era is characterized by somewhat less profound changes in life forms as compared with the changes that occur during an era.
 The periods of the Cenozoic era are divided into still smaller units called epochs, during which even less profound changes in life forms occur.

51. 18.1 The Geologic Time Scale
Precambrian Time
18.1 The Geologic Time Scale
 During Precambrian time, there were fewer life forms. These life forms are more difficult to identify and the rocks have been disturbed often.

52. The Geologic Time Scale
Makes no sense without caption in book

53. 18.1 The Geologic Time Scale
Difficulties With the Geologic Time Scale
18.1 The Geologic Time Scale
 A sedimentary rock may contain particles that contain radioactive isotopes, but these particles are not the same age as the rock in which they occur.
 The age of a particular mineral in a metamorphic rock does not necessarily represent the time when the rock was first formed. Instead, the date may indicate when the rock was metamorphosed.

54. Using Radiometric Methods to Help Date Sedimentary Rocks
Makes no sense without caption in book