1. Pollution of Lakes and Rivers Chapter 4: Retrieving the sedimentary archive and establishing the geochronological clock: collecting and dating sediment cores Copyright © 2008 by DBS

2. Contents Collecting and dating sediment cores Retrieving and sampling sediment profiles Setting the time scale: geochronological methods Correlating multiple cores from the same basin The top/bottom approach: snapshots of environmental change The paleolimnologists option of setting the most appropriate scale

3. Retrieving the Sedimentary Archive Collecting and Dating Sediment Cores What is required? –A sedimentary sequence that is the correct length, resolution and quality –An accurate depth-time profile

4. Retrieving the Sedimentary Archive Retrieving and Sampling Sediment Profiles Fieldwork – what is it like? Requires planning Criteria for good recovery –No disturbance of structure –No change in water content or void ratio –No change in constituent chemistry Dealing with variable composition –Sites differ markedly in their morphology/climate etc. –Composition may vary within the lake (basin to basin)

5. Retrieving the Sedimentary Archive Retrieving and Sampling Sediment Profiles Commonly used approaches: Glew, J., Smol, J.P. and Last, W.M. (2001) Sediment core collection and extrusion. In Last, W.M. and Smol, J.P. (eds.), Tracking Environmental Change using Lake Sediments, Volume 1, Basin Analysis, Coring, and Chronological Techniques. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp. 73-105. Long cores: Leroy, S.A.G. and Colman, S.M. (2001) Coring and drilling equipment and procedures for recovery of long lacustrine sediment sequences. In Last, W.M. and Smol, J.P. (eds.), Tracking Environmental Change using Lake Sediments, Volume 1, Basin Analysis, Coring, and Chronological Techniques. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp. 107-135.

6. Retrieving the Sedimentary Archive Retrieving and Sampling Sediment Profiles Choosing the coring site Would like continuous, representative and undisturbed samples Single cores - take many weeks/months to analyze Not an issue since replicate cores show very good reproducibility (Charles et al., 1991) Ideal: flat, central and deep basin –Bathymetric maps –Technology (depth soundings etc.) Things to avoid –Steep morphometric gradients (slumping) –Shallow areas (prone to mixing)

7. Retrieving the Sedimentary Archive Retrieving and Sampling Sediment Profiles Coring platform Cores are taken through the water column From a boat, platform or ice cover Coring equipment Figure 4.1. Collecting surface lake sediments using a small diameter Glew (1991) gravity corer from the pontoons of a helicopter in Arctic Canada.

8. Retrieving the Sedimentary Archive Retrieving and Sampling Sediment Profiles Coring equipment Last 100 years contained in 50 cm (N. America) (cf. fast accumulation) More ancient histories contained in cores 2 m or longer Recent sediments are unconsolidated > 90 % water Short Cores (Surface Sediments) Open-barrel gravity corers (plastic tubes) –Close-on-contact type (line tension) –Messenger-operated

9. Retrieving the Sedimentary Archive Retrieving and Sampling Sediment Profiles Surface sediments Freeze-crust samplers (Renberg, 1981, Verchuren, 2000) Designed to preserve chemistry of the sediment-water interface Figure 4.3. General operation of a freeze- crust sampler. Inset: Corer chamber is filled with dry ice and a coolant, such as alcohol. The corer top is secured. A: Corer is lowered through the water column B: Corer is lowered into the sediment, sediment freezes to the corer C: Sediment-encrusted corer brought to the surface.

10. Retrieving the Sedimentary Archive Retrieving and Sampling Sediment Profiles Long Cores Livingstone corer –Rod driven piston corer Figure 4.4. Simplified diagram showing the basic principles used in piston coring. A) To recover an undisturbed core sample, the corer is positioned at the sediment surface B) The piston held stationary, while the core tube is pushed past it into the sediment using the coring rod. C) The core section is recovered to the surface, with the core tube and piston locked together. The sealing of the piston in the core tube prevents any tendency for the sample to slide out or for the core material to be deformed.

11. Retrieving the Sedimentary Archive Retrieving and Sampling Sediment Profiles Kullenberg –Cable-operated Livingstone corer –For deep water Figure 4.5. General operation of a Livingstone-type piston corer, showing the lowering (A), sampling (B), and withdrawal (C) of a sediment sequence. The operator uses the drive rods to push the corer into the sediment to the desired depth. A cable, also held by the operator, keeps the piston in place. From Glew et al. (2001); used with permission.

12. Retrieving the Sedimentary Archive Retrieving and Sampling Sediment Profiles Long Cores Mackereth compressed air piston corer (Mackereth, 1958; 1969) See Glew et al., 2001

13. Retrieving the Sedimentary Archive Retrieving and Sampling Sediment Profiles Sediment Sectioning Photography Choice of division may be based on visible mixing Should be sectioned lake-side / ASAP

14. Retrieving the Sedimentary Archive Setting the Time Scale: Geochronological methods Radioisotopic techniques –Measure decay of naturally occurring radioisotopes – 210 Pb (t 1/2 = 22.3 yrs) most commonly used (for recent sediments ~150 yrs) 210 Pb Dating –Supported 210 Pb (in-situ decay of 238 U) –Unsupported 210 Pb (from atmosphere) (= total 210 Pb – Supported 210 Pb) Assumptions: Rate of deposition of unsupported 2 10 Pb is constant Transfer of 210 Pb from the water column to sediments No disturbances: mixing/additions from catchment inflows

15. Retrieving the Sedimentary Archive Setting the Time Scale: Geochronological methods

16. 210 Pb dating example ln (unsupported 210 Pb activity) Depth (cm) 0 Pb x x Pb 0 t = 1 ln( 210 Pb 0 / 210 Pb x ) λ Slope; m = - λ / a Where a = sedimentation rate

17. Retrieving the Sedimentary Archive Setting the Time Scale: Geochronological methods Other radioisotopic indicators – 137 Cs from bomb tests and Chernobyl (also 241 Am) –Peaks in 1954, 1958, 1962 (Test ban treaty, 1986) Appleby, 2001

18. Retrieving the Sedimentary Archive Setting the Time Scale: Geochronological methods 14 C used for longer sequences production via cosmic rays 1 0 n + 14 7 N 14 6 C + 1 1 H Atmospheric 14 C is found in 14 CO 2 Incorporated into plants where it decays –Whilst alive 14 C/ 12 C ratio is constant –After death 14 C no longer replaced from environment –Useful for about 7 half-lives t 1/2 = 5,730 yr

19. Retrieving the Sedimentary Archive Setting the Time Scale: Geochronological methods Pollen chronologies –Introduction, proliferation and demise of plant species –e.g. Ambrosia (ragweed) ~ European settlement Episodic events –e.g. volcanic ash from known eruptions (Tephrachronology) –e.g. Charcoal from forest fires Other anthropogenic time markers –Chemicals from anthropogenic activity

20. Retrieving the Sedimentary Archive Setting the Time Scale: Geochronological methods Annually laminated sediments (varves) –Similar to tree rings –Very few varve forming lakes Figure 4.9. Annual couplets (varves) of sediment from Nicolay Lake, Nunavut, Arctic Canada. Photograph taken by S. Lamoureux.

21. Retrieving the Sedimentary Archive The Top/Bottom Approach: Snapshots of Environmental Change Time consuming to analyze every layer With multiple lakes + cores the no. of samples increases before and after type questions do not require entire core e.g. are lakes currently more acidic than 1850s? Cumming et al., 1992

22. Retrieving the Sedimentary Archive The Paleolimnologists Option of Setting the Most Appropriate Time Scale Ecosystems change and respond to stress over varying time-scales Paleolimnology allows the scientists to set their own time-scale

23. Retrieving the Sedimentary Archive Summary Collection and dating is a crucial first part of any study 210 Pb most common dating technique for recent sediments Top/bottom approach may be used if detailed analysis not required

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