1. Prepared by Shane Barclay MD
Seizures
Prepared by Shane Barclay MD

2. OBJECTIVES
Assessing the seizing patient in the ER Treatment of seizures in the ER

3. Seizures Definitions
Seizure: manifestation of abnormal hyper excitable discharges of cortical neurons. Status epilepticus: greater than 5 minutes of seizure activity or.. more than 2 discrete seizures with incomplete recovery between events or.. continuing seizure after administration of anti-seizure medication. Epilepsy: the occurrence of at least 2 unprovoked seizures more than 24 hours apart.

4. Causes of Seizures Epilepsy – may be first presentation Hypoxia
Metabolic (hypoglycemia, uremic, hepatic..)
Electrolyte (hypo/hypernatremia, hypercalcemia)
Drug intoxication (anticonvulsants, antidepressants, antipsychotics, opioids, …)
Drug withdrawal (alcohol, benzodiazepines, …)

5. Causes of Seizures
7. Trauma (occur ~15% blunt severe traumatic brain injury) 8. CNS neoplasm 9. Stroke 10. Intracranial hemorrhage 11. CNS Infection 12. CNS dysfunction (Alzheimer's – incidence ~ 12%)

6. Differential Diagnosis
Eclampsia Pseudo-seizures Syncope Acute Dystonic reactions Rigors

7. Examination
Vitals – make sure to check temperature. Tongue biting. Although not sensitive, is quite specific for tonic-clonic seizures ~ 98%. Urinary incontinence – low sensitivity and specificity. Neurological exam: check for lateralizing signs.

8. Examination
Lab: Overall low yield ie only abnormal in around 15% of patients: CBC, glucose, lytes, Ca, Mg, renal, LFT, cultures, toxicology screen, ECG, preg test if female. Serum antiepileptic med if on them. LP, CT imaging and EEG should be done, but typically in a tertiary care facility.

9. Overview of Treatment
First Goal is to restore normal neuronal function. The second goal is to determine if the seizure is due to some treatable systemic condition or some intrinsic CNS dysfunction.

10. Treatment
ABCD Secure the airway if necessary, especially in status patients. Even if seizure has stopped, always establish an IV in case of a second seizure.

11. Medications
Most patients, unless in status epilepticus, will have stopped seizing by the time they reach the emergency department. In that case one can still consider a benzodiazepine as well as a second line medication to prevent a second seizure.

12. Medications
However if seizing or if a recurrent seizure occurs: If unable to establish IV: Midazolam 10 mg IM (if > 40 Kg) or 5 mg (if < 40Kg), or Midazolam 0.2 mg/kg intranasal or buccal or Diazepam 0.5 mg/kg rectally If IV established: Midazolam 0.2 mg/kg or Lorazepam 0.1 mg/kg, or diazepam 0.2 mg/kg IV

13. Second Line Medication
Follow benzodiazepines with Phenytoin 20 mg/kg IV at 50 mg/min max. If allergic to Phenytoin may use Phenobarbital 20 mg/kg IV at 100 mg/min. If patient known epileptic and on medications, usually give ½ the loading dose of their medication.

14. “Third line” Medications
Valproic acid mg/kg loading dose at 5 mg/kg/min. Propofol 3-5 mg/kg then infusion at mcg/kg/min.

15. Pharmacology of Benzodiazepines
Lorazepam has ~ 12 hours of anti-seizure property Diazepam has only about 20 minutes. Therefore if you use Diazepam, a second line antiepileptic medication must be started soon after. Studies have shown that IM Midazolam is actually faster at terminating seizures than IV Diazepam. Even though Midazolam has a serum half life of 2.5 hours, brain levels remain at near peak concentrations for at least 4 hours.

16. Status Epilepticus
Status epilepticus: greater than 5 minutes of seizure activity or more than 2 discrete seizures with incomplete recovery between events or failure to stop seizure after one med. Neuronal damage starts to occur after minutes of seizure activity due to impaired cerebral perfusion and reduced brain oxygen and glucose levels. The longer the seizure activity, the more refractory to treatment.

17. Status Epilepticus
First line treatment is benzodiazepines as discussed prior. Consider intubating earlier than later. The rationale for intubation is that using second and third line anti-seizure medications usually take much longer than 30 minutes to administer.

18. Status Epilepticus
The most reliable way to achieve seizure control under 30 minutes is a Benzodiazepine, Propofol and Ketamine. Propofol is a powerful antiepileptic. However the longer the seizure occurs, GABA receptors, which Propofol acts on, decrease in number and the seizure becomes less responsive to Propofol. You may need vasopressors to counteract the hypotensive effect of Propofol.

19. Status Epilepticus
Ketamine blocks NMDA receptors thus giving it anti- epileptic and neuroprotective properties. As the seizure continues, NMDA receptors increase making ketamine at least theoretically more effective. Ketamine may also help obviate some of the hypotensive effects of Propofol. As well always consider antibiotics, as a common cause of status is infection.

20. Status Epilepticus - protocol
Assess ABC, if intubation needed go to step 8.
Benzodiazepine – Ativan 4 mg IV or Midazolam 5 mg IV or 10 mg IM
Levetiracetam (Keppra) 60 mg/kg IV or 10 min or Valproic acid 40 mg/kg IV over 10 min
Exclude Hypoglycemia, treat with IV glucose
Exclude Hyponatremia, treat with 100 – 150 ml 3% NaCl

21. Status Epilepticus - protocol
7. If seizure stops, still give Keppra or Valproic acid 8. If seizure continues, intubate. Propofol 1.5 mg/kg + Ketamine 2 mg/kg Paralytic (succ or roc) Watch for hypotension, have pressor ready 9. Start Propofol infusion mcg/kg/min 10. Consider Narcan, lipid emulsion and empiric antibiotic (Ceftriaxone 2 gm)

22. Disposition
Admission or discharge is often determined by the clinical features and causes that were related to the seizure. Patients who present with a generalized seizure with no other worrisome history have been discharged home with close follow-up for investigations etc. Even with a normal EEG and normal CT scan, 1 and 4 year recurrence rates are 14% and 24%, respectively. However, antiepileptic medications do not affect this recurrence rate.

23. Questions?