1. Presented By :- Er. Srishtee Chaudhary Lecturer E.C.E GPCG,Patiala
RECEIVERS
Presented By :-
Er. Srishtee Chaudhary
Lecturer E.C.E
GPCG,Patiala

2. REVIEW ( Last Lecture ) TRF Receiver TRF Receiver drawbacks
Instability
Variation in BW
Poor selectivity
Super-heterodyne Receivers
Receiver Characteristics
Selectivity
Senstivity
Fidelity

3. CONTENTS
FM Receiver
AGC
Communication Receiver

4. FM RECEIVERS
FM receiver also operates on super-heterodyning principle.
Operating frequencies in FM are much higher than AM.
FM receivers need circuits like limiter and de- emphasis.
FM demodulators are different from AM detectors.

5. De-emphasis AF and Power amplifier Local oscillator RF amplifier Mixer
IF amplifier
Limiter
FM detector
De-emphasis
AF and Power amplifier
Local oscillator

6. R F Amplifier :-
Improves signal to noise ratio
Matches receiver input impedance to antenna impedance.
Mixer :-
Similar to AM receiver, down convert received signal to IF
Tuning range is less than that in AM broadcasting (88MHz to 108 MHz)
IF produced at output of mixer is 10.7MHz.

7. I F Amplifier :-
In case of FM receivers IF and bandwidth required are much higher.
IF is 10.7MHz
Bandwidth is 200kHz
this large BW will provide low gain per stage.
So more IF amplifiers are required (and are cascaded).

8. Amplitude limiter stage :-
Transmitted FM wave has constant amplitude, but unwanted noise and signal added to it change its amplitude.
This has to be removed before demodulation process otherwise distortion appears in demodulated signal.
As demodulators react to amplitude changes as well as frequency changes.
Limiter removes all unwanted amplitude variations

9. De-emphasis :-
Artificial boosting given to higher modulating frequencies in process of pre-emphasis is nullified
De-emphasis circuit is used after FM demodulator

10. AM RECEIVERS Vs FM RECEIVERS
AM: 540 kHz – 1600 kHz
FM: 88 MHz – 108 MHz
AM detector basically envelope detector
FM demodulator basically a frequency to amplitude converter
No limiter and de-emphasis stage
limiter and de-emphasis stage needed
IF 455 kHz
IF 10.7MHz
For AM radio, each station occupies a maximum bandwidth of 10 kHz
For FM radio, each station occupies a maximum bandwidth of 200 kHz
AM: Bt = 2W
FM: Bt = 2(D + 1)W (Carson’s Rule)
Input signal is AM wave
Input Signal is FM wave

11. AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL
Signals receiving at receiver input are not of same strength
Signals of strong station are strong and from weak stations are weak
If receiver gain constant then receiver o/p will fluctuate proportional to i/p signal strength which is not desired
So AGC adjust receiver gain automatically to have constant o/p irrespective of i/p strength

12. Types of AGC
Simple AGC
Delayed AGC
Ideal AGC
No AGC

14. SIMPLE AGC It will change overall gain of a receiver automatically
Thus keep receiver o/p constant even when i/p signal strength changes
Receiver gain is automatically reduced as i/p signal becomes stronger

15. Advantages
Simplicity
Low cost
Disadvantages
Weak signals are also attenuated
Applications
Low cost domestic radio receivers

16. IDEAL AGC For the portion ‘OA’ i.e for weak signal no AGC is applied
After point ‘A’ AGC is applied, keeping receiver o/p constant
Thus there is no gain reduction for weak signals

17. DELAYED AGC
In this case AGC bias is not applied until i/p signal strength reaches a predetermined level point B
After this point is reached AGC bias is applied like simple AGC but more strongly
Thus reducing receiver gain for weak signals is avoided

18. Operation
Here an adjustable positive bias is applied to cathode of AGC diode
Anode of diode is connected to o/p of last IF amplifier through coupling capacitor Cc
R3C3 filter, filters out high frequency appearing at anode of AGC diode
When i/p signal is weak, then anode of AGC diode is at less potential than cathode. So it is off

20. So AGC o/p is zero
When i/p signal is strong then AGC diode is forward biased
AGC o/p will be constant (Vb + Vd)
Thus delayed AGC reduces gain for strong signal and not for weak signals
We can say characteristics of delayed AGC is similar to ideal AGC
But here we can adjust point B ,by adjusting delay adjust potentiometer

21. Advantages
Weak signals are not attenuated
Disadvantages
Complex than simple AGC
Applications
High quality communication receivers

22. COMMUNICATION RECEIVER

23. Reason for using double radio receiver
When choosing the intermediate frequency for a superheterodyne radio receiver there is a trade-off to be made between the advantages of using a low frequency IF or a high frequency one
High frequency IF:   The use of a high frequency IF means that the difference between the wanted frequency and the unwanted image is much greater and it is easier to achieve high levels of performance because the front end filtering is able to provide high levels of rejection.

24. Low frequency IF:   The advantage of choosing a lower frequency IF is that the filters that provide the adjacent channel rejection are lower in frequency. The use of a low frequency IF enables the performance to be high, while keeping the cost low.
Accordingly there are two conflicting requirements which cannot be easily satisfied using a single intermediate frequency. The solution is to use a double conversion superheterodyne topology to provide a means of satisfying both requirements

25. For good image rejection, relatively high IF is desired
For good image rejection, relatively high IF is desired. However, for a high gain selective amplifiers that are stable, a low IF is necessary.
The solution for above constrain is to use 2 intermediate frequencies, i.e. by using double conversion AM receiver.
The 1st IF is a relatively high frequency for good image rejection.
The 2nd IF is a relatively low frequency for good selectivity and easy amplification.

27. WHY NAMED SO? RF signal is down-converted into two IF
Higher IF and Lower IF
Therefore named Double conversion receiver

29. INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCIES
1st IF = f0 – fs
1st IF = [( )]MHz - [(2-16)]MHz
1st IF = 1.7 MHz
2nd IF = f0 – fs
2nd IF = (1.7)MHz - (1.5)MHz
2nd IF = 200 KHz

30. OTHER BLOCKS Delayed AGC BFO ( Beat Frequency oscillator )
Squelch Circuit ( Muting Circuit )

31. DELAYED AGC
The disadvantage of automatic gain control, attenuating even the weak signal, is overcome by the use of delayed automatic gain control .
This type of system develops no AGC feedback until an established received signal strength is attained.
For signals weaker than this value, no AGC is developed. For sufficiently strong signals, the delayed AGC circuit operates essentially the same as ordinary AGC.
The circuit uses two separate diodes; one is the detector diode and the other the AGC diode.

32. The AGC diode is connected to the primary of the last IF transformer and the detector diode to its secondary.
A positive bias is applied to the cathode of the AGC diode. This keeps it from conducting until a prearranged signal level has been reached.
The adjust delay control allows manual control of the AGC diode bias. Manual control allows you to select the signal level at which AGC is applied.

34. BEAT FREQUENCY OSCILLATOR
The beat-frequency oscillator (BFO) is necessary when you want to receive CW signals.
The action of the RF amplifier, mixer, local oscillator, and IF amplifier is the same for both CW and AM; but the CW signal reaches the detector as a single frequency signal with no sideband components.
To produce an AF output, you must heterodyne (beat) any CW signal with an RF signal of the proper frequency. This separate signal is obtained from an oscillator known as a beat-frequency oscillator.

35. If the intermediate frequency is 455 kilohertz and the BFO is tuned to 456 kilohertz or 454 kilohertz, the difference frequency of 1 kilohertz is heard in the output. Generally, you will tune the BFO from the front panel of a receiver.
When you vary the BFO control, you are varying the output frequency of the BFO and will hear changes in the tone of the output audio signal.
The sensitivity of a receiver is maximum when no signal is being received.

37. This condition occurs, for example, when a receiver is being tuned between stations. At this time background noise is picked up by the antenna, and you will hear noise greatly amplified.
This noise is highly annoying and occurs because receiver gain is maximum without a signal.
You can often overcome this problem by using a circuit called a SQUELCH, NOISE SILENCER, NOISE SUPPRESSOR, or NOISE LIMITER. All of these noise type circuits just clip the peaks of the noise spikes. Squelch will actually eliminate noise.

38. SQUELCH CIRCUIT

39. A squelch circuit is a circuit used to turn off the audio of a receiver amplifier when no RF signal is being received. 
Without a squelch circuit, such absence of received signal will be heard on the receiver as an annoying background noise.       
In Figure , the automatic gain control (AGC) circuit, which is used to adjust the gain of the receiver based on the strength of the received signal, outputs a DC voltage that is proportional to the received signal's amplitude.   

40. When carrier is absent i
When carrier is absent i.e there is no signal present at i/p, receiver produces loud noise
This is due to delayed AGC that disappears in absence of i/p signal, increasing gain of IF and RF amplifiers
These amplifiers amplifies noise present at their i/p’s
Muting circuit avoid this type of condition
In absence of i/p signal AGC will be zero and squelch circuit will cut-off 1st audio amplifier so tha no noise can pass through loud speaker

41. Thus, in the absence of a received signal, the output of the AGC's DC amplifier is a very low DC voltage that's fed into the base of Q1.  This low base voltage causes Q1 to turn off, resulting in the base of Q2 being pulled up 'high' through R1.  This turns on Q2.     

42. When there's a received signal, Q1 gets a high base voltage from the AGC amplifier, turning it on. Q2's base is pulled 'low' by the conducting Q1, causing Q2 to turn off.  With Q2 'off', the audio signal from Q3's collector is readily passed on to the audio power amplifier.  

43. Features Fine tuning Variable senstivity Variable selectivity
Noise limiting
Better image frequency rejection
Better adjacent channel rejection

44. TRF RECEIVER
SUPERHETERODYNE
COMMUNICATION RXR
No frequency conversion
Single Frequency conversion
Double Frequency conversion
No IF frequency
Downconvert RF signal to lower IF frequency
Downconvert RF signal to two IF frequency(higher than lower)
Instability , variation in BW and poor selectivity due to high frequencies
No instability, variation in BW and poor selectivity as IF introduced.
Difficult to design tunable RF stages.
Main amplifixcation takes place at IF
Main amplifixcation takes place at IF stages
Rarely used
Mostly used
No AGC
AGC introduced
AGC,BFO an Squelch circuit

45. THANKS