1. The Special Senses Ch.17

2. An Introduction to the Special Senses
Five Special Senses
Olfaction
Gustation
Vision
Equilibrium
Hearing

3. The Senses General senses of touch (tactile) Special senses
Temperature- thermoreceptors (heat)
Pressure- mechanoreceptors (movement)
Pain- mechanoreceptors
Special senses
Smell- chemoreceptors (chemicals)
Taste- chemoreceptors
Sight- photoreceptors (light)
Hearing- mechanoreceptors
Equilibrium- (balance) mechanoreceptors

4. Developmental Aspects of the Special Senses
Formed early in embryonic development
Eyes are outgrowths of the brain
All special senses are functional at birth

5. Taste Buds Most of the 10,000 or so taste buds are found on the tongue
Taste buds are found in papillae of the tongue mucosa
Papillae come in three types: filiform, fungiform, and circumvallate
Fungiform and circumvallate papillae contain taste buds

6. The Tongue and Taste
The tongue is covered with projections called papillae
Filiform papillae – sharp with no taste buds
Fungifiorm papillae – rounded with taste buds
Circumvallate papillae – large papillae with taste buds
Taste buds are found on the sides of papillae

7. Taste Sensations Sweet receptors Sugars Saccharine Some amino acids
Sour receptors
Acids
Bitter receptors
Alkaloids
Salty receptors
Metal ions
Umami
Glutamate, aspartate (meats)

8. Taste Sensations There are five basic taste sensations
Sweet – sugars, saccharin, alcohol, and some amino acids
Salt – metal ions
Sour – hydrogen ions
Bitter – alkaloids such as quinine and nicotine
Umami – elicited by the amino acid glutamate

9. Sense of Smell
The organ of smell is the olfactory epithelium, which covers the superior nasal concha.
Olfactory receptor cells are bipolar neurons with radiating olfactory cilia
Olfactory receptors are surrounded and cushioned by supporting cells
Basal cells lie at the base of the epithelium
Figure 15.3

10. Olfaction – The Sense of Smell
Impulses are transmitted via the olfactory nerve
Interpretation of smells is made in the cortex (olfactory area of temporal lobe)

11. Sensory Adaptation
Chemical can stimulate receptors for limited time
Receptors fatigue and stop responding to chemical
No longer smell order

13. Vision 70% of all sensory receptors are in the eye
Most of the eye is protected by a cushion of fat and the bony orbit
Accessory structures include eyebrows, eyelids, conjunctiva, lacrimal apparatus, and extrinsic eye muscles

14. The Eye and Vision Each eye has over a million nerve fibers
Protection for the eye
Most of the eye is enclosed in a bony orbit made up of the lacrimal (medial), ethmoid (posterior), sphenoid (lateral), frontal (superior), and zygomatic and maxilla (inferior)
A cushion of fat surrounds most of the eye

16. Eyebrows Coarse hairs that overlie the supraorbital margins
Functions include:
Shading the eye
Preventing perspiration from reaching the eye
Orbicularis muscle – depresses the eyebrows
Corrugator muscles – move the eyebrows medially

17. Palpebrae (Eyelids) Protect the eye anteriorly
Palpebral fissure – separates eyelids
Canthi – medial and lateral angles (commissures)

18. Palpebrae (Eyelids)
Lacrimal caruncle – contains glands that secrete a whitish, oily secretion (Sandman’s eye sand)
Tarsal plates of connective tissue support the eyelids internally
Levator palpebrae superioris – gives the upper eyelid mobility

19. Palpebrae (Eyelids) Eyelashes
Project from the free margin of each eyelid
Initiate reflex blinking

20. Accessory Structures of the Eye
Eyelids- brush particles out of eye or cover eye
Eyelashes- trap particles and keep them out of the eye
Ciliary glands – modified sweat glands between the eyelashes- secrete acidic sweat to kill bacteria, lubricate eyelashes

21. Conjunctiva Transparent membrane that:
Lines the eyelids as the palpebral conjunctiva
Covers the whites of the eyes as the ocular conjunctiva
Lubricates and protects the eye

22. CONJUNCTIVITIS
Inflammation of the conjunctiva
Caused by bacterial or viral infection
Highly contagious

23. Lacrimal Apparatus
Consists of the lacrimal gland and associated ducts Lacrimal glands secrete tears Tears: Dilute salt solution contain mucus, antibodies, and lysozyme. Enter the eye via superolateral excretory ducts. Exit the eye medially via the lacrimal punctum. Drain into the nasolacrimal duct and empties into the nasal cavity. Protects, moistens, and lubricates the eye

24. Extrinsic Eye Muscles Six straplike extrinsic eye muscles
Enable the eye to follow moving objects
Maintain the shape of the eyeball
Four rectus muscles originate from the annular ring
Two oblique muscles move the eye in the vertical plane

25. Summary of Cranial Nerves and Muscle Actions
Names, actions, and cranial nerve innervation of the extrinsic eye muscles

26. Structure of the Eyeball
Figure 15.8a

27. Fibrous Tunic Forms the outermost coat of the eye and is composed of:
Opaque sclera (posteriorly)
Clear cornea (anteriorly)
The sclera protects the eye and anchors extrinsic muscles
The cornea lets light enter the eye

28. Vascular Tunic (Uvea)
Has three regions: choroid, ciliary body, and iris
Choroid region
A dark brown membrane that forms the posterior portion of the uvea
Supplies blood to all eye tunics

29. Vascular Tunic Ciliary Body
A thickened ring of tissue surrounding the lens
Composed of smooth muscle bundles (ciliary muscles)
Anchors the suspensory ligament that holds the lens in place
Ciliary Body

30. Vascular Tunic Iris The colored part of the eye
Pupil – central opening of the iris
Regulates the amount of light entering the eye during:
Close vision and bright light – pupils constrict
Distant vision and dim light – pupils dilate
Changes in emotional state – pupils dilate

31. Pupil Dilation and Constriction
Figure 15.9

32. Sensory Tunic: Retina A delicate two-layered membrane
Pigmented layer – the outer layer that absorbs light and prevents its scattering
Neural layer, which contains:
Photoreceptors that transduce light energy
Bipolar cells and ganglion cells
Amacrine and horizontal cells

33. The Retina: Ganglion Cells and the Optic Disc
Ganglion cell axons:
Run along the inner surface of the retina
Leave the eye as the optic nerve
The optic disc:
Is the site where the optic nerve leaves the eye
Lacks photoreceptors (the blind spot)

34. The Retina: Photoreceptors
Rods:
Respond to dim light
Are used for peripheral vision
Cones:
Respond to bright light
Have high-acuity color vision
Are found in the macula lutea
Are concentrated in the fovea centralis

35. Rods Sensitive to dim light and best suited for night vision
Absorb all wavelengths of visible light
Perceived input is in gray tones only
Sum of visual input from many rods feeds into a single ganglion cell
Results in fuzzy and indistinct images
Most are found towards the edges of the retina
Allow dim light vision and peripheral vision (more sensitive to light, do not respond in bright light)
Perception is all in gray tones

36. Cones Need bright light for activation (have low sensitivity)
Have pigments that furnish a vividly colored view
Each cone synapses with a single ganglion cell
Vision is detailed and has high resolution
Allow for detailed color vision
Densest in the center of the retina
Fovea centralis – area of the retina with only cones
Respond best in bright light
No photoreceptor cells are at the optic disk, or blind spot

37. Blood Supply to the Retina
The neural retina receives its blood supply from two sources
The outer third receives its blood from the choroid
The inner two-thirds is served by the central artery and vein
Small vessels radiate out from the optic disc and can be seen with an ophthalmoscope

38. Inner Chambers and Fluids
The lens separates the internal eye into anterior and posterior segments
The posterior segment is filled with a clear gel called vitreous humor that:
Transmits light
Supports the posterior surface of the lens
Holds the neural retina firmly against the pigmented layer
Contributes to intraocular pressure

39. Anterior Segment Composed of two chambers Aqueous humor
Anterior – between the cornea and the iris
Posterior – between the iris and the lens
Aqueous humor
A plasmalike fluid that fills the anterior segment
Drains via the canal of Schlemm
Supports, nourishes, and removes wastes

40. Refraction and Lenses
When light passes from one transparent medium to another its speed changes and it refracts (bends)
Light passing through a convex lens (as in the eye) is bent so that the rays converge to a focal point
When a convex lens forms an image, the image is upside down and reversed right to left

41. Refraction and Lenses There are 2 types of Lenses
Converting lens (convex) takes the light and bring it to a point
A diverging Lens (concave) takes light rays and spread it outward

42. Photoreception: Functional Anatomy of Photoreceptors
Photoreception – process by which the eye detects light energy
Rods and cones contain visual pigments (photopigments)
Arranged in a stack of disklike infoldings of the plasma membrane that change shape as they absorb light

43. COLORBLINDNESS
Comes from a lack of one or more types of color receptors.
Most are green or red or both and that is due to a lack of red receptors.
Another possibility is to have the color receptors missing entirely, which would result in black and white vision.
An inherited trait that is transferred on the sex chromosomes (23rd pair)- sex-linked trait
Occurs more often in males
Can not be cured or corrected

44. COLORBLINDNESS TEST PLATES

45. The Ear: Hearing and Balance
The three parts of the ear are the inner, outer, and middle ear
The outer and middle ear are involved with hearing
The inner ear functions in both hearing and equilibrium
Receptors for hearing and balance:
Respond to separate stimuli
Are activated independently

46. The Ear Houses two senses Receptors are mechanoreceptors
Hearing (interpreted in the auditory cortex of the temporal lobe)
Equilibrium (balance) (interpreted in the cerebellum)
Receptors are mechanoreceptors
Different organs house receptors for each sense

47. The Ear: Hearing and Balance
Figure 15.25a

48. Outer Ear The auricle (pinna) is composed of: External auditory canal
The helix (rim)
The lobule (earlobe)
External auditory canal
Short, curved tube filled with ceruminous glands
Tympanic membrane (eardrum)
Thin connective tissue membrane that vibrates in response to sound
Transfers sound energy to the middle ear ossicles
Boundary between outer and middle ears

49. Middle Ear (Tympanic Cavity)
A small, air-filled, mucosa-lined cavity
Flanked laterally by the eardrum
Flanked medially by the oval and round windows
Epitympanic recess – superior portion of the middle ear
Pharyngotympanic tube – connects the middle ear to the nasopharynx
Equalizes pressure in the middle ear cavity with the external air pressure

50. Ear Ossicles
The tympanic cavity contains three small bones: the malleus, incus, and stapes
Transmit vibratory motion of the eardrum to the oval window
Dampened by the tensor tympani and stapedius muscles

51. Mechanisms of Hearing
Vibrations from sound waves move tectorial membrane (pass through the endolymph fluid filling the membranous labyrinth in the cochlear duct)
Hair cells are bent by the membrane

52. Mechanisms of Hearing An action potential starts in the cochlear nerve
The signal is transmitted to the midbrain (for auditory reflexes and then directed to the auditory cortex of the temporal lobe)

53. Middle Ear (Tympanic Cavity)
Figure 15.25b

54. Inner Ear Bony labyrinth
Tortuous channels worming their way through the temporal bone
Contains the vestibule, the cochlea, and the semicircular canals
Filled with perilymph
Membranous labyrinth
Series of membranous sacs within the bony labyrinth
Filled with a potassium-rich fluid

55. Inner Ear
Figure 15.27

56. The Cochlea The scala tympani terminates at the round window
The scalas tympani and vestibuli:
Are filled with perilymph
Are continuous with each other via the helicotrema
The scala media is filled with endolymph
The “floor” of the cochlear duct is composed of:
The bony spiral lamina
The basilar membrane, which supports the organ of Corti
The cochlear branch of nerve VIII runs from the organ of Corti to the brain

57. The Cochlea
Figure 15.28

58. Properties of Sound Sound is:
A pressure disturbance (alternating areas of high and low pressure) originating from a vibrating object
Composed of areas of rarefaction and compression
Represented by a sine wave in wavelength, frequency, and amplitude

59. Properties of Sound
Frequency – the number of waves that pass a given point in a given time
Pitch – perception of different frequencies (we hear from 20–20,000 Hz)

60. Transmission of Sound to the Inner Ear
The route of sound to the inner ear follows this pathway:
Outer ear – pinna, auditory canal, eardrum
Middle ear – malleus, incus, and stapes to the oval window
Inner ear – scalas vestibuli and tympani to the cochlear duct
Stimulation of the organ of Corti
Generation of impulses in the cochlear nerve