1. PSY 2012 L.A. Siegel, MA, CSE, AASECT
Learning
PSY 2012
L.A. Siegel, MA, CSE, AASECT

2. Learning
The process by which practice or experience results in a relatively permanent change in behavior
Conditioning
A simple form of learning in which a specific pattern of behaviors is learned in the presence of well-defined stimuli

3. Classical Conditioning

4. Classical Conditioning
Learning in which a response naturally caused by one stimulus comes to be elicited by a different, formerly neutral stimulus
Ivan Pavlov

5. Elements of Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
Unconditioned response (UR)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned response (CR)

6. Classical Conditioning Procedure
Food (US)
Salivation (UR)

7. Classical Conditioning Procedure
Bell (CS)
No Response
Food (US)
Salivation (UR)

8. Classical Conditioning Procedure
During Conditioning
Food (US)
Bell (CS)
Salivation (UR)

9. Classical Conditioning Procedure
After Conditioning
Bell (CS)
Salivation (CR)

10. Classical Conditioning In Humans
Many phobias are the result of classical conditioning – John Watson
The “Little Albert” experiment demonstrated a classically conditioned phobia
Taste aversion
Learned association between the taste of a certain food and nausea or revulsion
This learning can occur quickly, often with only one pairing – WHY?

11. Classical Conditioning in Humans
Taste aversion
Learned association between the taste of a certain food and a feeling of nausea or revulsion
This learning can occur quickly, often with only one pairing
Speed of learning is likely related to survival instincts

12. Operant Conditioning

13. Operant Conditioning
Learning in which an organism’s behavior is followed by a reward or punishment
Organism learns to perform behavior in order to gain a reward or avoid a punishment

14. Elements of Operant Conditioning
Reinforcer
A stimulus or event that follows a behavior and makes that behavior more likely to occur again
Punisher
A stimulus or event that follows a behavior and makes that behavior less likely to occur again

15. Types of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcer (+)
Adds something rewarding following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again
Giving a dog a treat for fetching a ball is an example
Negative reinforcer (-)
Removes something unpleasant from the environment following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again
Taking an aspirin to relieve a headache is an example

16. Punishment
Goal of punishment is to decrease the occurrence of a behavior
Effective punishment
Should occur as soon as possible after the behavior
Should be sufficient, i.e., strong enough
Should be certain, occurring every time the behavior does
Should be consistent

17. Punishment Not as effective as reinforcement
Does not teach proper behavior, only suppresses undesirable behavior
Causes upset that can impede learning
May give impression that inflicting pain is acceptable

18. Operant Conditioning is Selective
Operant conditioning techniques work best with behaviors that would typically occur in a specific situation
Superstitious behavior
Tendency to repeat behaviors that are followed closely by a reinforcer, even if they are not related
For example, a particular pair of socks might become “lucky” if something good happened when you wore them

19. Learned Helplessness
Failure to try to avoid an unpleasant stimulus because in the past it was unavoidable
Possible model for depression in humans

20. Schedules of Reinforcement
Interval schedules
Reinforcement depends on the passing of time
Fixed-interval schedule
Reinforcement follows the first behavior after a fixed amount of time has passed
An example would be receiving a paycheck every two weeks
Variable-interval schedule
Reinforcement follows the first behavior after a variable amount of time has passed
An example would be pop quizzes

21. Schedules of Reinforcement
Ratio schedules
Reinforcement depends on the number of responses made
Fixed-ratio schedule
Reinforcement follows a fixed number of behaviors
For example, being paid on a piecework basis
Variable-ratio schedule
Reinforcement follows a variable number of behaviors
An example would be playing slot machines

22. Cognitive Learning
Learning that depends on mental activity that is not directly observable
Involves such processes as attention, expectation, thinking, and memory

23. Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps
Latent learning is learning that takes place before the subject realizes it and is not immediately reflected in behavior
A cognitive map is latent learning stored as a mental image

24. Insight and Learning Sets
Insight is when learning seems to occur in a sudden “flash” as elements of a situation come together
Learning sets refer to increasing effectiveness at problem solving through experience, i.e., organisms “learn how to learn”

25. Learning by Observing
Social learning theory focuses on what we learn from observing other people
Observational or vicarious learning occurs when we see the consequences of other people’s behavior
Vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment affects the willingness of people to perform behaviors they learned by watching others

26. Memory

27. Memory
The ability to remember things we have experienced, imagined, or learned
Memory is often seen as steps in an information-processing model
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval

28. The Sensory Registers
Sensory registers are the first stop for all sensory information
The sensory registers are very large, but information stays for only a very short time

29. Visual and Auditory Registers
Visual register holds images, or icons, that represent all aspects of a visual image
Icons normally last about ¼ second in the visual register
Auditory register holds echoes of sound
Echoes can last up to several seconds in the auditory register

30. Attention Selects certain information for further processing
We normally pay attention to only a small portion of incoming information

31. Sequence of Information Processing

32. Short-Term Memory
Short-term memory holds information we are aware of or thinking about at any given moment
Sometimes referred to as working memory

33. Capacity of Short-Term Memory
Early research indicated that STM can hold 5-10 bits of information
Current research has demonstrated that STM can hold whatever is rehearsed in 1.5 to 2 seconds
Larger amounts of information can be held by using the process of chunking

34. Encoding in Short-Term Memory
Much information is stored in STM phonologically (according to how it sounds)
Some information is stored visually
Research has shown that memory for visually encoded information is better than phonologically encoded information

35. Maintaining Short-Term Memory
Information can be held in STM by using rote rehearsal, also called maintenance rehearsal
Rote rehearsal involves repeating information over and over
This technique is not very effective in creating long term memories

36. Long-Term Memory
Everything that is learned is stored in long-term memory
Capacity of long-term memory
Vast amounts of information may be stored for many years
No known limits to capacity

37. Encoding in Long-Term Memory
Most information is encoded in terms of meaning
Some information is stored verbatim
Some information is coded in terms of nonverbal images

38. Serial Position Effect
People tend to recall the first items (primacy effect) and last items (recency effect) in a list
Demonstrates how short- and long-term memory work together
Primacy effect reflects long-term memory
Recency effect reflects short-term memory

39. Serial Position Effect

40. Maintaining Long-Term Memory
Rote rehearsal
Repetition can result in long-term memory
Only effective if there is intent to learn material
Example: What does a penny look like?
The accurate picture is the one third from the left. Most people will get this wrong because although they have seen a lot of pennies, they never pay attention so they never learn.

41. Maintaining Long-Term Memory
Elaborative rehearsal
Process of relating new information to information already stored in memory
Meaning is assigned to new information and then linked to as much existing knowledge as possible

42. Schemata
A schema is a set of beliefs or expectations about something based on past experience
Incoming information is fit with existing schemata
Schemata can also influence the amount of attention paid to a given event

43. Types of Long-Term Memory
Episodic memories
Memories for personal events in a specific time and place
Semantic memories
Memory for general facts and concepts not linked to a specific time
Procedural memories
Motor skills and habits
Emotional memories
Learned emotional responses to various stimuli

44. Explicit and Implicit Memory
Explicit memory
Memory for information we can readily express and are aware of having
This information can be intentionally recalled
Implicit memory
Memory for information that we cannot readily express and may not be aware of having
Cannot be intentionally retrieved

45. The Biology of Memory How are memories formed?
Changes in synaptic connections among neural cells
Called long-term potentiation
Where are memories stored?
There is no one place
Different parts of the brain are specialized for different types of information

46. Where Are Memories Stored?

47. Forgetting

48. The Biology of Forgetting
Decay theory
Memories deteriorate because of the passage of time
Amnesia
Memory loss caused by accidents, surgery, poor diet, or disease
Retrograde amnesia
Loss of memory from prior to an accident or injury

49. Experience and Forgetting
Retroactive interference
Occurs when new information interferes with information already in memory
Proactive interference
Occurs when information already in memory interferes with new information

50. Interference

51. Experience and Forgetting
Situational factors
Recall of information is better if environment is the same as when information was learned
State-dependent memory
Recall of information is better if person is in the same physiological state as when information was learned
Reconstruction
Memories can be altered with each retrieval

52. How to Reduce Forgetting
Develop motivation
Practice memory skills
Be confident in your ability to remember
Minimize distractions
Stay focused
Make meaningful connections to what is in long-term memory
Use mental imagery
Use retrieval cues
Rely on more than memory alone
Be aware of possible distortion due to schemata

53. Special Topics in Memory
Autobiographical memory
Recollection of events in our life
More recent events are easier to recall
Childhood Amnesia
Generally poor memory for events prior to age two
May occur because brain in not fully developed at birth
Another theory is that it may be due to lack of clear sense of self in young children

54. Special Topics in Memory
Extraordinary memory
Includes eidetic imagery (photographic memory)
Usually due to well developed memory techniques
Flashbulb memories
Vivid memories of dramatic event
May occur because of strong emotional content

55. Special Topics in Memory
Eyewitness testimony
Shown to be unreliable
People’s recall for events may be influenced by what they heard or imagined
Recovered memories
Involved the recall of long-forgotten dramatic event
May be the result of suggestion
Some evidence that memories can be repressed and recalled later

56. Cultural Influences on Memory
Cultural values and practices influence what kinds of things we remember and how easily we recall them