1. Chapter 11: The Americas on the Eve of Invasion
By:
Period 1
Matt, Matt, Tirza, Kate and Annette

2. The First Americans
The first Americans migrated to North America from Asia during the Late Ice Age by crossing the Bering Land Bridge, over what is now the Bering Strait
When polar ice caps melted around 10,000 BC, the Bering Land Bridge was submerged, isolating the Americas from the rest of the world
This left the people there to develop their own cultures

3. The First Americans
Some of the first Americans traveled south along the west coast of North America by boat. When an ice-free corridor opened along the Rocky Mountains, they could also travel on foot south and migrate into South America

4. Central America
The Central Americans were primarily hunter-gatherers until they could support settled villages with domesticated crops
They mainly relied on native root plants for their agriculture, such as sweet potatoes, yams, and manioc
Later they obtained maize (corn) from Mexico which was a better, more reliable food able to help them sustain permanent settlements
A better food supply (including maize and other crops) allowed the Central Americans to form more complex civilizations such as villages, city-states, and eventually empires

5. Central America
The most advanced agriculture techniques developed in the Mayan region and Mexico
There was very fertile land which led to food surpluses, which then allowed a larger population, which resulted in more complex social structures
Different villages throughout Mexico and Central America traded goods and exchanged ideas with each other
The mixing of ideas and cultures formed the foundation for the rise of greater civilizations

6. The Americas on the Eve of Invasion
By the 1500s the Americas were densely populated
They had developed independently from other major centers of world history
The Americas had many different peoples and a huge variety of cultures and ways of life
The peoples of Central and South America (Toltecs, Mayans, Aztecs, Incas, etc.) were called Indians because of Christopher Columbus who was mistaken and thought he had sailed to the Indies
Native Americans are still sometimes referred to as Indians today

7. Postclassic Mesoamerica (1000-1500 CE)
Toltec beginnings
Defeat of the Teotihuacan in lake Texcoco
A sedentary, agrarian, militaristic society
Influence as far as Guatemala
Legend of Topiltzin and influence in Yucatan
Capital in Tula in 968

8. Toltec Beliefs and Accomplishments
Cult of sacrifice and war
Never surpassed achievements of those before them
Obsidian, turquoise, trading
Possible connection with Hopewell peoples
Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl: patron God
Burial sites
Social stratification
Most evidence is archeological

9. Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl

10. Aztec Beginnings Toltecs ended by Nomads 1150 CE
Many native tribes now inhabit the area the Toltecs controlled
Basically a continuation of Toltec culture, this time based in Tenochtitlan
Based on the shores of large lakes in Mexico
Winners of the struggle for power in the lakes
Used anarchy after Toltec fall to secure power

12. Aztec Culture Collection of stratified clans united under one ruler
Distinctive ideas about science, the earth, and the universe
Had laws, boundaries, a marketplace near the palace
City states politically and physically
Latoque- a council to elect the successor
Advanced agriculture and crafts- chinampas

14. Religion Cult of human sacrifice Priests, autosacrifice
Many gods, each had different manifestations and variations
Family is extremely important
Boys took on father’s job
Girls did household chores, etc
Harsh punishments

15. Economy Valuable as allies, even with massive unpopularity
Many slaves obtained from conquered lands
A special merchant class: pochteca
Taxes, cocoa beans and gold dust as money
Conquest state, conquered many lands

16. Aztec Society in Transition
Society became more hierarchical as the empire grew.
Social classes with different functions began to develop, with the original system of calpulli’s remained.
Suffered some problems in maintaining a large population with the limited technological knowledge they knew of the time.
Extra hours spent working in the fields and preparing food.
Transportation a struggle without the knowledge of the wheel.

17. Widening Social Gulf Aztecs divided into seven calpulli
Residential groupings; included neighbors, allies, dependents.
Distributed land, organized military units in war, maintained schools.
Calpulli governed by councils of family heads,, some not equal status.
Forms of social stratification such as nobility emerged
These group of nobles had high offices, private lands, etc.
Protected by military and administrative nobility of Aztec state.
Other forms of social stratification
“Serfs,” lower than slaves
Intermediate group: scribes, artisans, healers

18. Overcoming Technological Constraints
Membership determined by participation in calpulli, specific social class, gender roles.
Aztec Women
Helped in fields, raised children and cooked, weaved silk, training young girls role of a women.
Unlike most women in other societies of that time, women could inherit property and pass to heirs.
However, little political and social rights
Technological difference in Mesoamerica than Mediterranean
No knowledge of wheel or animals.
30-40 hours more work preparing food

20. A Tribute Empire
Each council in a calpulli would elect a leader of that calpulli.
The Great Speaker, the ruler of Tenochtitlan
Very powerful and respected leader
There was also an elected prime minister
However, usually closely related of the ruler of the calpulli.
Held tremendous power
Governing council
Made up of rulers of other cities in alliance
Most power in the government was in hands of Aztec ruler and chief advisor

21. A Tribute Empire cont’d
Aztec empire never integrated, decided to stay in Calpullis.
Rulers of the Calpullis stayed in place to act as tribute collectors for Aztec overlords.
Later in the empire, peasants revolts against an Aztec leader became common.
Peasants became frustrated with the social stratification.
Overall, empire was a success
Enforced political domination and not direct administrative or territorial control.
Over time, social stress caused revolts which contributed to fall of empire.

22. Twantinsuyu: World of the Incas
Came about 1300 CE in the Andean Cultural hearth
The Inca Empire was a high centralized system
There ended up being a big breakup of the “intermediate horizon” states, those states being Tihanaco and Huari
some regional states on Lake Titicaca and states on the rivers on the north coast would end up remain some of the centers of agriculture activity and population density
There was a War period that was between rival local Chiefdoms and small states.
Between 900 and 1445 the Inca Empire would gain control of most of the north coast

23. The Inca rise to power
Along the coast in the Southern Andean highlands there were urban areas, ethnic groups and politics that struggled over the legend of Tihanaco
Legend says that 10 related Clans came from caves that were in the regions and that a mythical leader was who brought them over to Cuzco
Pachuaucuti’s son who was also his successor Topac Yupanqui conquered the Northern Coastal Kingdom of Chimor
By the end of Huayna Capac’s life Inca Empire went from Colombia to Chile then went eastward from Lake Titicaca to Bolivia to Northern Argentina

24. Conquest and Religion cult of ancestors was important to Inca belief
The Incas also adopted the practice of split inheritance
Incas held the sun to the highest deity
-The Temple of the Sun was in Cuzco
-Incas didn’t prohibit the act of worshipping the local gods
Viracocha was Inca Pachuaucuti’s favorite and very important
There were many Huccas which were temples or in other words holy shrines
Many sacrifices were given at these sites

25. The Techniques of Inca Imperial Rule
Empire ruled by Inca
Divided into four provinces, each got a governor and within those were divided again
spread Quechua language to integrate empire and had use of colonist
System of roads were built where needed and along those were tambos
There was the Mita which mean labor turns
Gods and Goddesses were worshipped by both genders but females tended to go towards
Goal was to have a self sufficient community
Inca nobility played important roles and well as the Yanas

26. Inca Cultural Achievements
They made really pretty pottery in these little workshops they had
Incas Metal work was the most advanced in the Americas at the time
Worked well with gold and silver
Used copper and some bronze for their
Tools/weapons
”Writing system” was Quipu
Used to record census and financial info
They had a thing for number ordering
The Incas smarts truly showed in these areas
land and water managements
extensive road system
architecture and public buildings

28. Comparing Incas and Aztecs
Similarities
Both empires were based on intensive agriculture
Nobles were the personnel of the state
Recognized local ethnic groups and political leaders and allowed all those who worshipped anyone and what not
Differences
Trade and market was more advanced in the Aztec Empire
Writing Systems, social definition, and beliefs
American Indian civilization shared much with each other

29. The Other Peoples of the Americas
The diversity of the Americas has made scholars reevaluate the ideas of human development
In Americas, groups of fishes, hunters and gathers developed hierarchical societies
Goes against the thought that social complexity is dependent on agriculture.
Other groups practice agriculture, but do not develop into states
Goes against the thought that agriculture is the turning point for political authority and the state.

30. How Many People?
The estimation of Indians were grossly exaggerated by Europeans
The best estimate of the population in the America, however, is between million people in 1500
Most historians agree that Mesoamerica and the Andes has the largest populations
There was also a significant drop in population due to disease from Europeans and Spanish immigrants

31. Differing Cultural Patterns
There was similar chieftainships based on sedentary agriculture through the Americas
Especially strong in the Amazons
Some in eastern North America and Brazil combined agriculture with hunting and fishing
One reason is because some lacked the technology to work on hard land
Used slash and burn farming
Social organization was without strong class divisions, craft specialization or permanent agriculture.
North America is the most diverse
In 1500, more than 200 languages were spoken
The environment varied from a rich, green environment to the hardy prairies

32. Differing Cultural Patterns
Much variation with Indian Cultures
Most indian societies were strongly kin based
Exceptions of the state system of Mesoamerica and Andes
Ranking was not based on wealth
Woman were subordinate, but in some societies held important political and social roles
Indians view self as part of the ecological system
Different to many European and Asian civilizations

33. American Diversity in World Context
At the end of the 15th century, the Aztec and Inca empires dominate in centers of Mesoamerica and the Andes
Both built on achievements of predecessors, militaristic, and weakened by internal strains along with limited by technological inferiority
The first Europeans were shocked by the tribes people and their wealth
The Americas lacked many key technologies
The wheel, large domesticated animal, the plow, many metal tools, and written languages
The Americas isolation came to an end in 1492

34. The Americas and The World
Because the Americas were isolated from any global connections with other civilizations, they did not gain certain technologies such as the wheel, ironworking, or a variety in domesticated animals/livestock
They were also unaffected by any of the major world religions
Even without influence from outside cultures, the Native Americans made many of their own achievements including an accurate calendar and intricate wood and stone working
The Native Americans’ lack of connections with other world civilizations became a problem, though, when the Americas were forced into new global contact

35. Discussion Questions
How are the Aztecs similar and different to the Toltecs?
Describe the achievments of the Toltecs and Aztecs
What was the social stratification like in the Aztec society? Did it have a positive or negative affect on the society?
What were the calpulli? What functions did they perform? Who governed the calpulli?
What are some of the major reasons that the documentation of the America's population is not very accurate?

36. Discussion Questions
Compare and contrast the Americas with Europe and Asia. What technologies are different? How do they view themselves with the world around them?
What was the Mita and what was its purpose?
How did split inheritance affect the people?
How did American cultures develop independently from the rest of the world?
How did the introduction of maize to Central America affect the civilizations there?

37. Works Cited
Burland, Cottie, and Werner Forman. The Aztecs: Gods and Fate in Ancient Mexico. London: Orbis Publishing, 1975.
Ancient Aztec Empire. 2 November 2011.
<
Reed, Alma. The Ancient Past of Mexico. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc., 1966.
Smith, Michael. The Aztecs. Massachusetts: Blackwell publishing Ltd., 2001
Foster, Lynn V. A Brief History of Central America. New York: Facts on File, pg. 6-11
Settlement of the Americas. 6 November <
Lake Titicaca. 2 November <
Hyams, Edward, et al. The Last of the Incas: The Rise and Fall of an American Empire. New York: Simon and Schuster, Inc, 1963.
Peru Travel Diary. 3 November <
Quechua Language (Quichua, Inga, Inca, Runasimi). 3 November 2011.
<
New World Encyclopedia. 9 November 2011.<
Gibson, Charles. The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule: A History of Indians of the Valley of Mexico Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1964.
Mental Floss. 9 November 2011.<