1. Historical Linguistics
The History of the English Language

2. Beowulf (1000 AD?) Old English Modern English Translation
HWÆT! WË GÄRDEna in geärdagum, þëodcyninga þrym gefrünon, hü ðä æþelingas ellen fremedon! Oft Scyld Scëfing sceaþena þrëatum, onegum mågþum, meodosetla oftëah, egsode eorl, syððan årest wearð fëasceaft funden. Hë þæs fröfre gebäd, wëox under wolcnum, weorðmyndum þäh, oðþæt him åghwylc þära ymbsittendra 10 ofer hronräde hÿran scolde, gomban gyldan. Þæt wæs göd cyning!
Listen! We have heard of the glory of the Spear-Danes' people-kings in bygone days, how then the princes performed deeds of strength! Oft Scyld Scefing took mead-benches away from troops of enemies, from many tribes; the warrior was terrifying, after he was first found helpless. He met with consolation for that, grew under the clouds; throve in honour, until each of the neighbours across the whale-road had to obey him, pay tribute. That was a good king!

3. The Canterbury Tales Prologue by Geoffrey Chaucer (1380-1392)
Middle English
Modern English Translation
Whan that Aprill with his shoures soote The droghte of March hath perced to the roote, And bathed every veyne in swich licour Of which vertu engendred is the flour, Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth Inspired hath in every holt and heeth The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne Hath in the Ram his halve cours yronne, And smale foweles maken melodye, That slepen al the nyght with open ye (so priketh hem Nature in hir corages), Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages, And palmeres for to seken straunge strondes, To ferne halwes, kowthe in sondry londes; And specially from every shires ende Of Engelond to Caunterbury they wende, The hooly blisful martir for to seke, That hem hath holpen whan that they were seeke
When April with his showers sweet with fruit
The drought of March has pierced unto the root
And bathed each vein with liquor that has power
To generate therein and sire the flower;
When Zephyr also has, with his sweet breath,
Quickened again, in every holt and heath,
The tender shoots and buds, and the young sun
Into the Ram one half his course has run,
And many little birds make melody
That sleep through all the night with open eye
(So Nature pricks them on to ramp and rage)-
Then do folk long to go on pilgrimage,
And palmers to go seeking out strange strands,
To distant shrines well known in sundry lands.
And specially from every shire's end
Of England they to Canterbury wend,
The holy blessed martyr there to seek
Who helped them when they lay so ill and weak.

4. Pre-Old English Britain originally populated by Britons (Celts)
Spoke languages from the Celtic family: Cornish, Pictish, Welsh, Celtic

5. Pre-Old English

6. Pre-Old English

7. Pre-Old English 43 AD: Britain conquered by Romans
43 AD – 500 AD: Britons fight back, driving out last Roman legions by 410 AD.

8. Old English Britain invaded by Germanic tribes
Northern Germany, Denmark, Southern Scandanavia, Eastern Europe
Conquered by Germanic tribes by 400 AD
Different Germanic dialects merge to create Old English, or Anglo-Saxon
Probably sounded most like modern Friesian (a dialect of Dutch)

9. Old English

10. Old English 597: Christianity to Britain 700s 865: Viking control
Latin vs. Anglo-Saxon
Bede
Beowulf
Viking invasions
865: Viking control
878: King Alfred
Christianity brought to Britain by Roman missionaries in 597 AD
Brought some Latin words and Latin grammar
700s
Powerful people and religious people spoke Latin, and common people spoke Anglo-Saxon
Bede (a monk) wrote the history of English-speaking peoples (in Latin)
Bede kept an enormous library of written Anglo-Saxon
Beowulf
Developed AD
Memorized and retold (sung) by storytellers across British countryside
Shows that English was subtle enough to convey the subtleties and scope of the human experience
Viking invasions (from Scandinavia) brought Old Norse language
Destroyed Bede’s library
Burned most written Anglo-Saxon
By 865, Vikings controlled most of Britain
Old Norse threatened to take over Anglo-Saxon like Anglo-Saxon had taken over Celtic
878 AD
King Alfred the Great fights back against Vikings and saves the Anglo-Saxon language
Vikings and British start to do business together, marry each other
Anglo-Saxon and Old Norse begin to merge

11. Old English

12. Old English How did Old Norse change Anglo-Saxon?
New words
Changed words
New phonemes
Two words for the same thing
Grammar
Syntax change (36:00)
Latin’s decline
Religious texts
How did Old Norse change Anglo-Saxon?
Added new words: window, knife, they, their them
Changed some words
Added /sk/ sound
Introduced new words for the same thing. These words live on in modern English
Skin (Norse) / Hide (Anglo-Saxon)
Ill (Norse) / Sick (Anglo-Saxon)
Skill (Norse) / Craft (Anglo-Saxon)
Simplified rules of English grammar
Made English less Germanic
Used word order instead of inflections
Introduced prepositions instead of word endings
Syntax change (36:00)
Latin declined into nonexistence in England
Latin was the language of religion and scholarship
People started losing touch with religion and history
King Alfred wanted to save souls and maintain Christianity in England
Commissioned religious and historical texts in Old English so people could read them  we have written records of Old English

13. Old English 1066 AD: The Battle of Hastings French “invades” English
Governing system
Language of power
1066 AD: The Battle of Hastings
King of England: King Edward
Edward considered William (a duke in France) to be his heir
Kind Edward died
Queen’s brother Harold crowns himself King
William invades England
Harold and William fight at the Battle of Hastings
Harold dies, William the Conqueror becomes King
William the Conqueror spoke Old French (Latin roots)
William put allies in power—most spoke French
Adapted a more French governing system (more centralized, less tribal)
Governing and aristocratic class became French speakers
French became the language of power
French used in military, justice, government, business / banking

14. Old English becomes Middle English
New French words added to English lexicon
Military words
Enemi, castel, armee, archier, soudier, garison, garde
Words for new social order
corune, trone, cort, duc, baron, nobilite, paisant, servant, governer, liberte, autorite, obedience, traitre, serf, labourer
Words associated with courts
felonie, arester, warant, justise, juge, juree, acuser, aquiter, sentence, condemner, prisun, gaiole
1066 – 1300 AD
About 10,000 words enter English
French and Latin are official languages of state, law, aristocracy, business, religion, scholarship, history
English unprestigious language of common people

15. Old English becomes Middle English
Explains why we sometimes have two words for the same thing. Example: English speakers grew the food and French speakers ate it:
Old English
Old French
Turkey, chicken
Poultry
Cow
Beef (Beouf)
Deer
Venison
Pig
Pork (porc)