1. Brain and Behavior

2. Mental Illness
In ancient Mesopotamia, mental illness was believed to be caused by demonic possession.
Priest-doctors treated the mentally ill with magical/religious (e.g., exorcisms, incantations, prayer, atonement) and other mystical rituals intended to drive out the evil spirit. 

3. Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus 1700 BC
Ancient Egyptians - oldest written record using the word "brain”.
48 cases studies
injured by falls (maybe from working on monuments or buildings)
victims of battle (many wounds appear to be caused by spears, clubs or daggers).
Imhotep

4. Aristotle – Heart is the most important organ in the body.
Mental Functions located in the
heart.
Lungs and brain simply existed to
cool the heart.
Based on studies of chick embryos
Held that people with heavy upper bodies were intellectually dull due to the extra weight bearing on the heart.

5. Ancient Greece
Epilepsy considered a divine punishment for sinners. Depending on the symptoms the Greeks would attribute the fits to a different deity such as Cybele, Poseidon, Mars, Hekate, Hermes or Apollo. According to the Hippocratic texts, for example, if the symptoms included teeth gnashing or convulsions on the right side, then epilepsy was attributed to Cybele, whereas if the patient screamed like a horse, then god Poseidon was to blame.

6. According to Plutarch (50-120 A. D
According to Plutarch ( A.D.), all babies in ancient Sparta were examined by a council of the elders; epileptic babies were left to Apothetae, a short chasm of the mountain Taygetus (Plutarch, 1914).

7. Hippocrates (circa 400 BC)
The theory of the Four Humors of the body, ~ blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm, involved a principle of balance.
Health was a consequence of balance between the four humors, while disease or sickness was the result of an imbalance.
Argued medicine is not philosophy, and therefore must be practiced on a case-by-case basis rather than from first principles.

8. Four Humors
Melancholy, for instance, resulted from an excess of black bile and could be cured by restoring the balance of the bodily humours by such treatments as special diets, purgatives, and blood-lettings. Argued that “epilepsy” was not a divine disease, but had physical causes.

9. Galen of Pergamon 130 – 200 AD
medical training in Smyrna and Alexandria.
surgeon to the gladiators of Pergamos.
physician of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius
searched for physiological reasons for different behaviors in humans.

10. The Nine Temperaments
Based on four humors but allowed for nine possible “temperaments” based on the levels of the four humors. In the four least desirable temperaments, one characteristic dominated the other three. In four others, a pair of temperaments dominate the other two. Galen referred to these as either “sanguine”, “choleric”, “melancholy”, and “phlegmatic”. In the ideal temperament, all four humors are balanced.

11. Qualities Associated with the Temperaments ~ Hysen P.
Sanguine
Phlegmatic
Choleric
Melancholic
Skin color
Ruddy
Pale
Yellow
Brown
Skin texture
Smooth / firm
Smooth / soft
Rough
Rough / dry
Skin quality
Warm / moist
Cold / moist
Warm / dry
Cold / dry
Hair color
Dark brown /  fair
Dark blond /  Blond
Dark brown /  red
Dark brown /  black
Hair quantity
Hairy
Hairless
Very hairy
Balding
Stature
Medium
Short
Body build
Muscular
Flabby / fat
Lean
Slim
Pulse
Strong / even
Soft / deep
Fast / sharp
Deep small
Appetite
Good
Poor
Strong
Large
Digestion
Quick / good
Slow / weak
Overactive
Slow
Urine
Light yellow
Thin / pale
Orange / thick
Thick / pale
Faeces
Brown / firm
Pale / loose
Dry / yellow
Dry / black
Dreams
Happy / red
Water / pale
Quarrel / fire
Fears / dark
Emotions
Happiness
Apathy
Anger
Worry / grief
Test your Temperament

12. Psycho-Surgery
Brain surgery is perhaps the oldest of the practiced medical arts. Evidence from as early as 5100 BC
Trepanation is the removal of a piece of skull with out damage to the underlying blood-vessels, meninges and brain.

13. earliest trepanned skulls, the holes were made by scraping the bone away with sharp stones.
later, primitive drilling tools were
used to drill small holes arranged in circles, after which the piece of bone inside the circle was removed.
The late Medieval period - introduction of mechanical drilling and sawing instruments,

14. The procedure was used as a treatment for conditions such as headaches, epilepsy, hydrocephalus and mental disorders.
These were presumably attributed to possession by evil demons, such that a hole in the skull would have provided the spirits a passage for escape.

15. Medieval Madness
Ship of Fools

16. Stone of Madness
A curious belief held by some in the Middle Ages was that mental illness was caused by a “stone of madness” situated anywhere in the body, but most commonly in the head. Many quack healers roamed Europe performing sham operations on the mentally ill, removing the stone, and affecting a cure, which, presumably, was very short-lived.  

17. Hieronymus Bosch c. 1494
Pieter Bruegel, c. 1550
Jan Sanders van Hemessen, c. 1550

18. Bethlem Bedlahm
Founded in 1247, Bethlem is Europe’s oldest center devoted solely to the treatment of mental illness.

19. Physical features directly related to personality and mental processes
Physiognomy
Physical features directly related to personality and mental processes

20. Franz Joseph Gall
That moral and intellectual faculties are innate
That their exercise or manifestation depends on organization
That the brain is the organ of all the propensities, sentiments and faculties
That the brain is composed of as many particular organs as there are propensities, sentiments and faculties which differ essentially from each other.
That the form of the head or cranium represents the form of the brain, and thus reflects the relative development of the brain organs.

21. He was a pioneer in the study of the localization of mental functions in the brain. Around 1800, he developed "cranioscopy", a method to divine the personality and development of mental and moral faculties on the basis of the external shape of the skull.

22. Claimed there are some 26 "organs" on the surface of the brain which affect the contour of the skull, including a "murder organ" present in murderers.
Brain organs that were used got bigger and those which were not used shrunk, causing the skull to rise and fall with organ development.
Gall's early work was with criminals and the insane and his brain "organs" reflected this interest.
Phrenology

23. phrenological theories best accepted in England, where ruling class used it to justify the inferiority of colonial subjects.

24. Debunking
Napoleon Bonaparte was furious because Gall's interpretation of his skull "missed" some noble qualities he thought he had.
In 1808, the Institute of France assembled a committee of savants.
- declared phrenology was not to be trusted.

25. Pierre Flourens
Ablation and stimulation methods and many experimental investigations on mammalian species, especially rabbits and pigeons. Removing Cerebellum which Gall claimed was the organ of amativeness (sexual love) from dogs, did not make them less amorous, but did impair their co-ordination.

26. Popular in the United States from 1820 to 1850
Phrenology remained
Popular in the United States from 1820 to 1850
Phrenology remained a POP Science into the 1930’s
Bumps(1932)

27. Quack Quack!!
Phrenology gave rise to the invention of the psychograph by Lavery and White, a machine which could do a phrenological reading complete with printout. It is said that this device netted its owners about $200,000 at the 1934 Century of Progress Exposition in Chicago.

28. Anthropometry
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, used mainly to classify potential criminals by facial characteristics.
Cesare Lombroso "Criminal Anthropology" 1895, associated certain craniofacial features to criminal types. (e.g., murderers have prominent jaws, and that pickpockets have long hands and scanty beards).
Popular among the police and judicial systems in Italy and in many other countries.
Well until the 30s, many judges ordered "lombrosian" anthropometric analyses of defendants in criminal charges, which were used against them by the prosecution in the trial procedures.

29. Craniology Influential during the Victorian era,
Used by the British to justify racism and dominance of "inferior people", such as the Irish and the black tribes of Africa.
"Inferior" races were said to be similar to apes and monkeys, so that they were considered to be more kin to these animals than the main European people (such as the Anglo-Saxon, of course...).

30. Jonh Beddoe, the founder and president of the British Anthropological Institute, The Races of Man" (1862), developed "Index of Nigressence", stated that the Irish had crania similar to those of the Cro-Magnon pre-historic men and thus were a kind of "Africanoid" white race !

31. High Brow/Low Brow

32. National Hygiene Department in the Ministry of the Interior and in the Bureau for Enlightenment on Population Policy and Racial Welfare, proposed the "scientific" classification of Arians and non-Arians
Official craniometric certification required by law
“Many persons were sent to the death camps or denied marriage or work as a result of this "mismeasurement“. Stephen Jay Gould

33. Localization of Function
As it turns out, Gall and the phrenologists were correct when it came to the central debate of neurology of the time.
The brain is compartmentalized, with each piece serving a specific function modern map is based on fundamental functions, such as Broca’s and Werinike’s Areas.

34. Phineas P. Gage
Video

35. Early Studies of the Central Nervous System

36. Okay, it is the History Channel but . . . . .

37. Stephen Hales (1677–1761) English Botanist Worked with frogs.
Hales showed that some reflexes are mediated by the spinal cord.
Hales studied stones taken from the bladder and kidneys and suggested solvents which might reduce them without surgery.
He also invented the surgical forceps.                        

38. Luigi Galvani~ 1780
Luigi Galvani touched the nerves of a frog's spinal cord with metal electrodes which caused contractions of the leg muscles.
Galvanic Skin Response named after him, but not invented by him.

39. Charles Bell - 1823 Scottish surgeon-anatomist
published "Essays on the Anatomy of Expression in Painting"
Nerves of the senses could be traced from specific areas of the brain to their end organs.
Distinguished between sensory & Motor neurons

40. Germany – birthplace of Psychology
1815 – 1871 – federation of 38 principalities.
Wissenschaft – philosophy of education
encouraged research, teaching
academic freedom
students wandered from university to university
degrees involved sitting examinations or writing of thesis.
Methods from Physiology
Development of measurement instruments
Replication of results
Public data and academic debate
Experimental methods

41. Johannes Peter Müller 1840 – further developed Bell’s research .
The doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies
Nervous stimulation is the link between the physical world and our psychological experience of it.
For example, the visual nerves, however they may be stimulated, are only capable of transmitting visual data.

42. Mechanistic View of Human Behavior
Müller – proposed that there was in addition to physical and chemical properties of the physiological system, there was also a “Vital Force” that could not be reduced further. (Vitalism)
Mechanistic View – vitalism is a myth. All living organisms can be reduced to physical, chemical and mechanical principles. (Müller’s Students, Helmhotz).

43. Emil Du Bois-Reymond - 1850 Developed very sensitive galvonometer.
Was able to measure the role of electrical impulses in neural conductance
“No force other than the common physical chemical ones are active within the organism.”

44. Hermann Ludwig von Helmholtz Physicist
Speed of neural conductance.
(90 feet per second)
Established Reaction Time
As a measure of
Psychological Processing.

45. More Helmholtz … Invented ophthalmoscope – for examining retina.
Trichromatic theory of Color Vision

46. Opponent Process Theory Herring

47. Charles Wheatstone (1833)

48. Psychophysics
Ernst Weber – two point threshold.

49. Weber’s LAW Thresholds – just noticeable differences.
How much does a stimulus need to change before it can be detected. JND/S = k
Studied the relationship between the physical and the psychological.

50. Gustav Fechner Studies on afterimages led to blindness.
- became an invalid, depression.
Recovered vision by “taking control over his life”.
Mind-Body Controversy
In his last work Fechner, aged but full of hope, contrasts this joyous "daylight view" of the world with the dead, dreary "night view" of materialism.

51. JND depends on the intensity of the standard
Weber’s Law
I/I = k
Change in Intensity divided by Intensity of the standard is a constant.
Not “Absolute” but it is predictable.