1. The Basics of Recursion

2. Example of a Recursive Algorithm
Assume you want to find a name in a phone book.
You could open the book to the middle and if the name is on that page you are done.
If not, if the name were alphabetically before the page you were looking at, you could search the first half of the book.
If it were alphabetically after the current page, you could search the second half of the book.
Searching half the book is just a smaller version of searching the entire book so you can use the same algorithm.

3. The Idea of Recursion
A natural way to design an algorithm often involves using the same algorithm on one or more subcases.
If a method definition contains an invocation of the very method being defined, that invocation is called a recursive call, or recursive invocation.

4. Another Example of Using Recursion
Suppose the requirement is to take a single integer and write out the digits of the integer as words. For example, if the integer input is 223, the algorithm should write out “two two three”.
If the integer is a single digit, you can use a long switch statement to write out the appropriate word.

5. Another Example of Using Recursion (cont’d)
This task can be divided into subtasks in many ways, and not all ways make use of recursion.
One way that does is the following:
Output all but the last digit as words.
Output the word for the last digit.
The second statement can be accomplished with our long switch statement.

6. Another Example of Using Recursion (cont’d)
If inWords is the name of our method for outputting the integer in words, we can write out algorithm as follows:
inWords(number with the last digit deleted);
System.out.print(digitWord(last digit) + “ “);
where digitWord is a method containing the long switch statement for outputting a single word for a single digit.

7. Another Example of Using Recursion (cont’d)
Since number/10 gives the number with the last digit removed and number%10 gives the remainder which is the last digit, we can rewrite the algorithm as follows:
inWords(number/10)
System.out.print(digitWord(number%10) + “ “);

8. Complete Code for Integer to Words Recursive Algorithm
import java.util.*; public class RecursionDemo { public static void main(String[] args) { System.out.println("Enter an integer:"); Scanner keyboard = new Scanner(System.in);; int number = keyboard.nextInt( ); System.out.println("The digits in that number are:"); inWords(number); System.out.println( ); System.out.println("If you add ten to that number, "); System.out.println("the digits in the new number are:"); number = number + 10; inWords(number); System.out.println( ); } /** Precondition: number >= Action: The digits in number are written out in words. */ public static void inWords(int number) { if (number < 10) System.out.print(digitWord(number) + " "); else //number has two or more digits { inWords(number/10); System.out.print(digitWord(number%10) + " "); } }

9. Complete Code for Integer to Words Recursive Algorithm (cont’d)
/** Precondition: 0 <= digit <= Returns the word for the argument digit. */ private static String digitWord(int digit) { String result = null; switch (digit) { case 0: result = "zero"; break; case 1: result = "one"; break; case 2: result = "two"; break; case 3: result = "three"; break; case 4: result = "four"; break; case 5: result = "five"; break; case 6: result = "six"; break; case 7: result = "seven"; break; case 8: result = "eight"; break; case 9: result = "nine"; break; default: System.out.println("Fatal Error."); System.exit(0); break; } return result; } }

10. Key to Successful Recursion
A definition of a method that includes a recursive invocation of the method itself will not behave correctly unless some specific guidelines are followed.
The following rules apply to most cases that involve recursion:
The heart of the method definition is an if-else statement or some other branching statement that leads to different cases, depending on some property of a parameter to the method.

11. Key to Successful Recursion (cont’d)
One or more of the branches should include a recursive invocation of the method. These recursive invocations should, in some way, solve “smaller” versions of the task.
One or more branches should include no recursive invocations. These branches are the stopping cases (also known as base cases).

12. Infinite Recursion
In order for a recursive method definition to work correctly and not produce an infinite chain of recursive calls, there must be one or more cases that, for certain values of the parameter(s), will end without producing any recursive call.
That is, there must be a stopping case.
When a method invocation leads to infinite recursion, your program is likely to end with an error message saying “stack overflow”.

13. Recursive versus Iterative Definitions
Any method definition that includes a recursive call can be rewritten so that it accomplishes the same task without using recursion.
The nonrecursive version typically involves a loop in place of recursion, and hence is called an iterative version.
Recursive versions are usually less efficient than iterative versions, but often make programs easier to understand.

14. Iterative Version of Previous Example
import java.util.*; public class IterativeDemo { public static void main(String[] args) { System.out.println("Enter an integer:"); Scanner keyboard = new Scanner(System.in); int number = keyboard.nextInt( ); System.out.println("The digits in that number are:"); inWords(number); System.out.println( ); System.out.println("If you add ten to that number, "); System.out.println("the digits in the new number are:"); number = number + 10; inWords(number); System.out.println( ); } /** Precondition: number >= Action: The digits in number are written out in words. */ public static void inWords(int number) { int divisor = powerOfTen(number); int next = number; while (divisor >= 10) { System.out.print(digitWord(next/divisor) + " "); next = next%divisor; divisor = divisor/10; } System.out.print(digitWord(next/divisor) + " "); }

15. Iterative Version of Previous Example (cont’d)
/** Precondition: n >= 0. Returns the number in the form "one followed by all zeros that is the same length as n." */ private static int powerOfTen(int n) { int result = 1; while(n >= 10) { result = result*10; n = n/10; } return result; }

16. Iterative Version of Previous Example (cont’d)
private static String digitWord(int digit) { String result = null; switch (digit) { case 0: result = "zero"; break; case 1: result = "one"; break; case 2: result = "two"; break; case 3: result = "three"; break; case 4: result = "four"; break; case 5: result = "five"; break; case 6: result = "six"; break; case 7: result = "seven"; break; case 8: result = "eight"; break; case 9: result = "nine"; break; default: System.out.println("Fatal Error."); System.exit(0); break; } return result; } }

17. Example of a Recursive Method that Returns a Value
Assume the task is to determine the number of zeros in an integer.
We might write the algorithm as follows:
If n is two or more digits long, then the number of zero digits in n is (the number of zeroes in n with the last digit removed) plus an additional one if the last digit is zero.

18. Example of a Recursive Method that Returns a Value (cont’d)
import java.util.*; public class RecursionDemo2 { public static void main(String[] args) { System.out.println("Enter a nonnegative number:"); Scanner keyboard = new Scanner(System.in); int number = keyboard.nextInt( ); System.out.println(number + " contains " numberOfZeros(number) + " zeros."); } /** Precondition: n >= Returns the number of zero digits in n. */ public static int numberOfZeros(int n) { if (n == 0) return 1; else if (n < 10)//and not return 0;//0 for no zeros else if (n%10 == 0) return(numberOfZeros(n/10) + 1); else //n%10 != return(numberOfZeros(n/10)); } }